The American Nations, Vol. I. Or, Outlines of a National History of the Ancient and Modern Nations of North and South America

The American Nations;

Or,

Outlines of A National History;

Of The

Ancient and Modern Nations

Of

North and South America

By Prof. C. S. Rafinesque.

Volume I.

Philadelphia

Published by C. S. Rafinesque,

No. 110 North Tenth Street.

1836

Contents

Prospectus. Dedication. Preface. Chapter I. Chapter II. Chapter III. Chapter IV. Chapter V. Chapter VI. Chapter VII. Footnotes

Prospectus.

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It contains an introduction, general view, account of materials and cataclysms, the Linapi and Haytian annals, with the Haytian Language, notes, tables, &c.

Dedication.

To The

Society Of Geography

Of Paris.

Gentlemen:—

To you I dedicate this work, result of long and weary researches. This homage is due to the public approbation you gave to my first analogous labor, my Memoirs or Series of Researches on the Origin of Mankind: which I endeavored to trace philologically to the centre of Asia. I had announced long ago this history of the Americans, the inhabitants of a whole hemisphere. I had quoted it in my other works. I now offer the outlines of it under your auspices.

You have furnished the example of cultivating along with Geography, all the auxiliary and connected sciences, which may enlighten it: particularly the ancient and modern Ethnography, with Philology one of its bases. You will see that I have followed this practice in availing myself of all the sciences to enlighten the history of mankind, the Ethnography and annals of nations: above all Philology with Chronology and Geography.

The origins and annals of the black nations, and of the American nations, were two subjects quite obscure and neglected, or the least known, of the history of mankind. Nobody has undertaken, as yet, the history of the Negro nations: a labor so difficult and luckless as to be despised.

My memoirs on this despised race, may perhaps furnish the bases of such history. All the histories of America are mere fragments or dreams. I have perceived the possibility and necessity to write a general and faithful history of this hemisphere. I now offer the results of this weary labor.

You will perceive in it many things which have already been said; since it is impossible to write history without repetitions; but my plan, the whole point of view, and the results which I draw, are my own. You will also find many things which were never told or were very improperly presented. I shall destroy many errors, hypotheses and conjectures: since in them alone often consist our works upon America.

But I shall not say every thing; where so much is to be related, all cannot be told: and I shall be compelled to neglect several minute details. I wish to trace faithful outlines, rather than write a bulky work, like our pretending _universal histories_, which however, dwell only upon one-third of the globe or even less.

I dislike long quotations, and shall seldom employ them: I quote only when authorities are required to render an opinion more forcible. Every where else I merely give the abridgement of my great historical materials in manuscript, which are arranged by extracts of authorities, and where they may be sought for in case of need.

Accept, Gentlemen, the respectful homage of

The Author.

PHILADELPHIA, _October 22d, 1833_.

Preface.

In venturing to open a new path in historical researches on the earth and mankind, it is incumbent on the bold pioneer to state his views, or at least to furnish adequate reasons for deviating so far from the usual track.

While every science and branch of knowledge is improving, and has, with rapid strides, made continual advances for fifty years past or more, is the noble muse of history to be kept stationary forever, by compilers and classical plodders? and for America by the foes of the ancient and modern nations of a whole hemisphere? No ... it is time to improve history as every thing else; to seek the truth and tell it.

As the human mind is yet more swayed by authorities, than genius or wisdom; high authorities will be given instead of long explanations. Ever since the time of Juvenal, it has been an ungrateful task to write historical truth: men often prefer to be amused, deceived, or helped in strife; than to be instructed, or receive sketches of former times. Yet there is always a secret delight in viewing faithful pictures of ages past, of our ancestors on earth, and our predecessors on the soil of our homes, or where we spend the scenes of our own lives.

The worthies who have been taken for models or guides in this arduous undertaking, are Solomon, Moses, Job, St. Paul, St. Augustine, Plato, Niebuhr, Humboldt, Malcolm, Gebelin, D’Olivet, Bryant, Adelung, Drummond, Pritchard, Champollion, Klaproth, Jones, Wilford, Akbar, Price, Bailly, Russell, Beattie, Herder, Carli, Barton &c. They shall speak for themselves, in quotations of their own words, instead of elaborate reflexions.

From God comes wisdom, knowledge and understanding—SOLOMON Prov. 2. v. 6. Those who will seek early wisdom will find her—SOL. Pr. 8. v. 17. Hear instruction and be wise, and refuse it not—SOL. Pr. 8. v. 33.

ZE this is. SFR book. THU symbol. LDTH progeny. ADM mankind. BIUM in manifestation. BRA in realization. ALEIM angels. ADM mankind. BDMUTH in identic passage. ALEIM angels. OSHE worked. ATHU such symbol.—MOSES. _Genesis ch, 5. v. 1._ Genuine mosaic words, and genuine translation word for word.

When I laid the foundations of the earth ... the morning stars sung together, and the sons of God shouted for joy.—SPEECH OF GOD HIMSELF IN JOB ch. 38., _Vulgar translation: the original is still more striking_.

The Hebrew philosophy divided the world in two hemispheres, the upper was SHMIM or _Shamaim_, the Heavens—the lower was SHEOL; but SHEOL-TAHTITH or inferior, was the place of bad souls and Rephaim. (The true SHEOL was America, or the southern hemisphere). The Jesuit Sanetius thought that Job had spoken of America.—PETERS, _Dissertation on Job_.

It is very possible for modern learning to understand better the books of Moses, Orpheus, and those of all ancient nations, than the Egyptian, Greek and Roman commentators: because the intellectual knowledge of languages is improving; and those ancient writers have, by their genius, approximated to us, while removed from the blindness of their ages.—GEBELIN, _Primitive World_.

The letter kills, but the spirit gives life.—ST. PAUL _Corinth._ II. ch. 3. v. 6. We use great plainness of speech, and not as MOSES who put a veil before his face, that the children of Israel could not stedfastly look to the end of that which is abolished.—_Cor. II. 3. v. 12, 13._—and even unto this day, when Moses is read, the veil is upon their heart, nevertheless when it shall please the Lord, this veil shall be taken away.—_Cor. II. 3. v. 15, 16._

To have a right apprehension of words or names, is a good step to the knowledge of things.—PLATO _in Cratylo_.

The confusion of words is the cause of all disputes and sects.—D’ISRAELI.

The obscure ages demand bold hypotheses or total neglect, contradictions are inseparable from days of tradition.—There exist no instance of a people really savage having spontaneously advanced to civilization. Savage men are degenerated or imperfect creatures.... Words and even few are the rules of analogies in nations.—NIEBUHR, _Roman History, Vol. I._

It is manifest that there are noble resources (for history) still remaining, if we will but apply ourselves to diligent enquiry. There are in every climate some scattered fragments of original history, some traces of a primitive and universal language. _Even America would contribute to this purpose, the more rude the monuments, the more ancient they may possibly prove, and afford greater light on enquiry._ BRYANT, MYTHOLOGY; conclusion of the work.

To accumulate materials without generalizing any idea is a method as sterile in history as in natural philosophy.—The geology of America does not differ essentially from that of the old world, the strata and the emersion from the waters are not newer: species long extinct have also preceded those now peopling the earth, the waters and the air.—The problem of the first population of America is no more the province of history, than the questions on the origin of plants and animals. When we shall better know the brown men of Africa, with those of the north and east of Asia, the American nations will be less insulated—They have extended from lat. 68 N. to 55 S. or 123 degrees of latitude, in plains and mountains, assuming various complexions and stature. If Africa has 140 languages, America has still more; resembling in this, the Caucasus, Italy before the Romans; but they are susceptible of classification into families. The multiplicity of languages is a very ancient phenomenon, perhaps those which we call American, belong no more to America, than the Magyar and Choud or Finn to Europe.—HUMBOLDT, _American Researches, Introduction_.

If we desire to be fully informed of a nation’s history, we must not reject the fables under which the few traces that remain of its origin are concealed. These, however extravagant, always merit attention they have an influence on the character of the people to whom they relate.—_First words of_ MALCOLM, _History of Persia_.

The Chinese often call the king, the kingdom and the nation by the same name, nay, even also the capital city.—REGIS, _History of Corea, in Duhalde China_.

The cradle or first seat of mankind was in Asia, between lat. 30 and 50; which is also the native place of all the domestic animals, fruits and grains.—_Adelung, Bailly, Higgins, &c._

The Genesis was a compilation of Moses from older annals, some perhaps by Noah himself.—_Revd. Mr. Davies, Herder._

The patriarchs of Moses and Pitris of Hindus were nations, personifications of early tribes.—_Drummond, D’Olivet, Wilford._

The early gods and kings of Greece and Italy, were probably tribes, the chiefs and followers being called by the same name. This is true also of the various Hercules or wandering Heroes.—_Dodwell, Jamieson._

Trying them by the languages, the Americans will appear to be children of the earliest human families.—BARTON, _Physical Journal_.

A flood of historical light has lately flown from India and Asia; but we lack still the real annals of Thibet: Polynesia and America may yet supply many facts and fill some blanks.—The original seat of civilization was between the Ganges and the Nile, the Caspian and the ocean.—The first tribes after the flood were fishermen and Frugivores, next hunters who did spread north east as far as America, and shepherds south west, as far as Cape of Good hope.—PRITCHARD, _Physical History of Man_.

The genealogy of the kings of England is derived direct from Noah in 25 generations only, to Cerdic first king of Wessex in 495; and through SCEAF born in the ark! giving more than 125 years for each generation, which is impossible, and proves these names, successive tribes or dynasties till Woden.—INGRAM, _Saxon Chronicle_.

The Ethiopians, Nubians and Egyptians are a peculiar race, perhaps in Africa before the flood.—CHAMPOLLION, _Systeme Hieroglyphique_.

The languages are better guides than physical characters for researches on mankind, and roots more important than grammars.—KLAPROTH.

Language belongs to man from origin, he never was a dumb animal, else he would always have remained so. All languages have something in common, and something peculiar.—BEATTIE, _Theory of Language_.

A thousand nations with a thousand idioms, are spread over a thousand places on earth. Thrown against each other like the waves of the sea, they blend and tend to unity. Several rival languages are formed, polished by contract, which overspread the earth; and break to pieces as well as nations and empires. Others arise from their ruins, and strive again for ascendency, until at last a people and language, son and daughter of all the previous nations and idioms, heirs of their dominion and wealth; shall perhaps invade the whole earth, and produce again the unity of speech and rule.—D’OLIVET, _End of Hebrew Grammar_.

It is said, _In the beginning God made Heaven and Earth_, that is to say, the seeds of heaven and earth, since their matter was yet in confusion in a potential way.—ST. AUGUSTINE _on Genesis_.

In the whole _Mosaic text_ there is no Eden, no tree, no apple, no rib, no woman, no snake, no ark ... but other words thus improperly translated to veil the sense.... Adam is not a man, but mankind, _Aish_ intellectual men, _Ashe_ mate or potent will, HUE our Eve is living existence!... The names of patriarchs are all expressive of operations of mankind.... Yet Moses’ Unity of God, and Belief in Immortality is evident throughout; although so obscured by the translation as to have been doubted.... Moses with his veils is made absurd; raising the veils he appears wise, deep, consistent, even more enlightened than our age on many points.—D’OLIVET, _Notes on Genesis_.

Whenever the numerical letters of Moses are taken in their material sense, inextricable difficulties have arisen; and which is the true version out of the 3 is doubtful: the deep mosaic meaning and import shall never be known, until the ancient lost science of numbers is restored, which was once known from China to Egypt and Europe.—D’OLIVET, _last note_.

Eblis or Satan was disgraced from Heaven, where Rezoan was his successor, and exiled to Seyestan, with the Snake and Peacock tribes his followers, Adam was exiled to Ceylon, Eve to Arabia &c.—PRICE, _Translation of Abijauffer’s History of Arabia_.

Menu was Adam, but there are seven Menus, the seventh was Noah.—SIR W. JONES, _Laws of Menu_. WILFORD.

The Babylonian empire begun 530 years after the flood, 2790 years after Adam.—RUSSELL, _Connection of Sacred History_.

Primitive history is under a veil, involved in fables; but all ancient fables have a historical base.—BAILLY, _on Atlantis_.

Before Adam God created the _Dives_ (angels) who had 72 kings or _Sol-i-man_ for 7000 years, and after them the _Peris_ govern for 2000 years.—HERBELOT, _Oriental Library_.

Noah dwelt near Cabul and Cashmir, his Ararat was in the Imalaya mountains.—SHUCKFORD, WELLS, _Sacred Geography &c._

As early as 4600 years before Christ, there was a communication between the Americans and the east by astronomical coincidences.—CARLI, _American Letters_.

Two great wars or _Mahabharat_ followed by dispersions of mankind, happened in India in 3236 and 2501 (before our era); and the Indian solar empire of _Berhut_ at Inderput now Delhi, ascends 16 generations beyond the first, at least to 3750 years B. C.—_Institutes of the Emperor_ AKBAR, _translated by_ GLADWIN.

Such are my guides. Are not those quotations sufficient?

For my rules of criticism, I have taken for guide, _Isaac Taylor’s_ excellent history of the transmission of ancient books, London, 1827. They may be analysed as follows, from his own summary.

1. If the records of antiquity could be deprived of their authority, we should also be deprived of intelligence, liberty and religion!

2. Dates are of little importance; being anciently expressed by letters, they are liable to errors. The Greeks and all eastern christians reckon 5508 years from Adam to Christ.

3. Geography and natural facts are open to criticism.

4. Wonders, monsters, miracles, are not always fabulous, but doubtful. Natural phenomena if unconnected with omens, may be right.

5. Speeches and secret motives do not belong to history, they are ornaments of rhetoric or mere surmises.

6. Facts are only to be attended to, they become more certain, if corroborated by monuments, inscriptions, coins &c.

7. The silence of a historian does not invalidate the assertions of others.

8. Contradictions, exaggerations, prejudices, party spirit, national dislike, must be allowed for. The arrogance of the Greeks and Chinese, who call barbarians, nations as good as they, is shameful, and must be noticed, as well as errors arising from hiding defeats &c.

The independent sources of history besides writers are, 1. remains of literature. 2. Chronological documents and astronomical calculations, 3. Natural features of nature and mankind, with permanent physical facts, 4. Permanent institutions, manners, monuments, languages &c. Lastly, remote facts may be certain; although a long while elapsed: whatever be the consequence; and even if the first evidence may have been erroneously transmitted, or not perspicuous. But accumulated evidence ought never to be doubted.

Chapter I.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.—_Natural Regions of America._—_Ancient and Modern Nations._—_Historical Periods._

Since our Globe is better known, it is no longer divided into 4 Continents; but must be divided into 3 great parts of the world or _Tholomeres_, each containing 3 lesser divisions or _Geotomes_, viz:

I. PROTHOLIA or THOLARKON, the ancient world, containing, 1. Asia, 2. Africa, 3. Europe, which are continents.

II. NEOTHOLIA or HESPERIA, the new world, containing, 1. _Atalia_ or North America, 2. _Columbia_ or South America, which are two continents ... and 3. the _Antilles_ or West Indies, the Archipelagos to the East and North, Carib and Lucayes islands.

III. OCEANIA or THOLONESIA, the Oceanic or Insular world, containing, 1. _Australia_, which is a continent, 2. _Meganesia_ or the great Islands from Japan till Ceylan and Madagascar, 3. _Polynesia_, the small Eastern Islands. These two last form immense groups of archipelagos, or clustered islands.

Therefore the terrestrial world includes 6 continents, and 3 groups of archipelagos, forming 9 geotomes.

It is of NEOTHOLIA that I write the history, of this third of the world, named likewise America, or the two Americas; a double continent, crowned in the East and towards the two poles by archipelagos.

Such an extensive part of the world, reaching nearly to both poles, offers to our notice and researches a crowd of objects, nations and events. If our universal histories which are confined to a small part only of the old world, form already bulky collections; it would be equally so with America, if we had complete annals of it. But, notwithstanding the scanty materials which have reached us on its ancient history; the modern annals and the old traditions of the nations dwelling there, afford many facts: and many auxiliary means contribute to enlarge the previous history, in unfolding the origins and revolutions of the nations and empires of both Americas. Thus, we shall often have to make a choice or abridge these materials, particularly in these outlines of a general history.

Formerly, historians wrote chiefly chronicles of the empires, kingdoms and republics; which were often mere biographies of monarchs and chiefs, conquerors and tyrants. We begin now to think more of mankind and the nations. I shall follow this principle, and trace at last a national history of America; this subject is so new, that we have not even yet a good history of mankind in Europe, much less in Asia and Africa.

Having dwelt in this continent since 1802, having settled in it since 1815, and having travelled in it every year to study the monuments and productions thereof: it was since 1818 that I began to conceive the possibility of raising the veil that was thrown over the annals of this third of the world. I have visited the public libraries of Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New-York, Boston, Albany, Lexington, &c. to consult all the historical works on America, and every other part of the world. I have read nearly all the travels in America and other distant countries. In the Ebeling library deposited in that of Cambridge University near Boston, I have found many ancient works on America, often unique in the United States, and very rare even in Europe. There is but a small number of rare works, which I have not yet been able to see; I shall give a list of them, in order that it may be ascertained whether they contain facts that have escaped me. My researches upon the languages and monuments of America, will compensate this unavoidable neglect, since they exceed whatever had been undertaken of the kind. I have thus endeavored to collect and compare all the facts relating to my subject.

I have not imitated, therefore, the lazy writers, who have pretended to give us histories of America, and have commonly produced mere sketches of it, full of neglects and defects. Such were Robertson, Holmes, Touron, Herrera, &c., with a crowd of imitators and compilers, which confine themselves to some years, or a single region, or the mere first Spanish invasions. They have, however, acquired some reputation either by style or manner; but they have degraded history, by giving sketches instead of it. We must except Herrera, who does not shine by the style; but is at least a faithful annalist of the Spanish deeds and colonies during 62 years, from 1492 till 1552. But Robertson, although praised for his style, is only his unfaithful and imperfect imitator, and the obvious slanderer of the American nations.

A complete criticism of the writers on America, would be desirable; but cannot enter into the plan of these historical outlines; although it may find a place in ulterior illustrations. It will be sufficient now to indicate that the best works, or those which furnish the greatest number of historical materials, are the old writers and travellers, since the modern historians and travellers (except Humboldt and a few more) appear to forget whatever has already been written on America.

The historian of such an extensive continent, should not be a mere annalist; but he ought to know well all the comparative sciences, sisters of history, such as chronology, geography, biography, archeology, ethnography, philology, &c. He ought also to be a philosopher and a philanthropist, to know the natural sciences which become connected with history by civilization, agriculture, and geology; he ought, above all, to be impartial and a good critic, in order to discard national prejudices, and avoid the blunders of credulity or imposture. What historian has ever united such acquirements? I have tried to acquire them: Have I succeeded? I offer my writings as the answer.

My method has been to make copious extracts of all the authors that I read. These materials already form a collection of over one hundred books of 6000 pages on the history of the earth and mankind: whereof I avail myself for all my historical works. I have formed besides another collection of iconographic illustrations, maps, plans, monuments, views, portraits, alphabets, symbols, implements, costumes, &c.; which may serve for proofs and atlas of these works, published or manuscript. This tellurian iconography, chiefly American, consists already in ten great books or portfolios; having little hope to be enabled to publish them, I wish they might be deposited in a great public library, where they might be consulted.

Instead of beginning this history of the Americans by generalities, I should wish to conclude the work by such results; but it may frequently be needful to deviate from this plan, and present results as they happen to arise from the facts and events.

The different parts of the Western Hemisphere are often distantly remote, and insulated, or little connected in their historical relations. Austral America and Boreal America have for instance hardly any historical connection: they are as widely separated as China and Europe; but all the central parts of America are intimately connected, above all the mountain regions from Mexico to Chili, which offer the same relation of civilization, languages and annalogies, as the Hindu-European regions and nations.

The Neotholian Hemisphere contains many distinct regions; but the natural or physical regions are not always identic with the historical regions. The isthmus of Panama or valley of Choco does not divide the nation as it does the two continents of America: and many groups of nations are intermingled throughout. The group of ancient ARUAC nations extended from near Florida through the Antilles, Guyana, Brazil to Tucuman and Magellania. The elder group of TALA or atlantic nations could be traced from the Ohio to Mexico, Guatimala and South America in the west.

Notwithstanding this fact, it is useful to keep in mind the great natural regions of America, so as to trace through them the vicissitudes of mankind in ancient and modern times. Thus we find six such regions in North America, and six in South America, with 3 in the Antilles.

1. Boreal region, or region of the lakes, stretching across North America, from the streight of Behring and peninsula Alaska in the west, to Labrador, Canada and Nova Scotia in the east. It is distinguished by a rocky soil, many large lakes and millions of small ones, surrounded near the pole and on either side by groups of islands. Its southern limits are undefined, but Lake Erie forms one of them.

2. The Californian or Oregon region, stretching from north to south along the Pacific Ocean from Fuca Strait to Mexico and Guatimala. It is a region of plains and hills.

3. The Mexican region or central mountains and table lands from the sources of the Missouri to Lake Nicaragua, distinguished by volcanoes, a dry lofty soil, &c.

4. The Missouri region, extending in vast grassy plains from latitude 50 to the Gulf of Mexico.

5. The Alleghany region, stretching in woody hills and mountains from Maine to Alabama and Illinois. The Ozark mountains and the whole of New England appear detached portions of it.

6. The Literal Atlantic region, stretching from Long Island to Florida, Mexico, Yucatan and Honduras, forming a long but narrow region of level plains, sands and marshes, skirted by sandy shores and islands.

The Antilles or West Indies, are all islands; divided into 3 very natural groups.

1. The large and hilly Islands of Jamaica, Cuba, Hayti, Boriquen.

2. The Lucayes or Bahama Islands north of them, low and chiefly of coral formations.

3. The Carib Islands east and south, commonly volcanic.

The regions of South America are 1. That of the Andes or high volcanic mountains extending from Santa Marta to the Island of Chiloé, stretching branches east as far as Cumana, and east of Peru. The hills of Panama from Nicaragua to Choco, are a detached part of it, probably once an island of the size of Cuba. Also the Magellanic or Austral region, including the hills and islands south of Chili, all detached from the Andes, with the archipelagos of Chiloé, Chonos, Fuego, Austral, Falkland, &c. often volcanic.

2. The Atacama region, or lowlands along the Pacific Ocean from the valleys of Darien and Choco to Chili, distinguished by sterility.

3. The Pampas or region of unwooded plains east of the Andes from the strait of Magellan to Paraguay and Chaco.

4. The region of Brazil, distinguished by fertile hills, mountains and valleys, forming a vast group of high lands connected to the Andes by an isthmus.

5. The region of Guyana or Parima, of shady hills perfectly insulated (once a large island) by the plains of the Maranon and Oronoc.

6. The vast equinoctical plains of Oronoc and Maranon, surrounding the mountains of Parima: where deserts, swamps and forests are mixed.

These 15 regions are quite natural, distinguished by peculiar physical, and geological features; but they do not coincide with the ethnological regions, where the American tribes have spread and intermixed. It would be difficult to state here even the most striking of these last. It will be the aim of this work to seek for them, and ascertain their limits; which have often varied anciently: while in modern times the European colonies and states have invaded them in all directions.

Meantime the population of both Americas, must be distinguished in ancient and modern.

In proceeding from the known to the unknown: we ascertain that a multitude of nations have come to America since 1492, as colonists or visitors. The principal were

1. _Spanish_: who have colonized or conquered from New Mexico to Chili, and from Florida to Buenos Ayres. But they came not alone, and have brought along with them as auxiliaries. 1. Italians, 2. Flemish, 3. Biscayans, 4. Canarians, &c., while as slaves 5. Moors of Mauritania, and 6. Many African-negro nations.

2. _Portugueze_: who have colonized the whole of Brazil, and brought there besides many Negro nations, some Moors, Gypsies, Chinese, &c.

3. _English_: Who have colonized the whole eastern side of North America, Jamaica and other islands of Antilles, with parts of Yucatan, Honduras, Guyana, &c. But they have brought with them, the Welsh, Scotch, Irish, Germans, Jews and many African nations.

4. _French_: They colonized Canada, Lousiana, Hayti, several Carib islands, Cayenne in Guyana, &c., and although conquered in North America and Hayti, their language remains. They brought along the Provençals, Bretons, Basks, speaking distinct languages, with several African nations.

5. _Scandinavians_: Who partly settled in North America since the 10th century, did laterly colonize again Groenland, with Delaware and some Carib Islands. They include the Norwegians, Danes and Swedes.

6. _Dutch-Hollanders_: Sent colonies to New-York, Surinam, Curazao, &c. brought Gypsies, Germans and Africans.

7. _Russians_: Have invaded and partly settled the north west shores and islands of North America; bringing there Cozacs, Calmucs, and several other Tartarian subjects.

8. Besides these, several other nations have laterly visited America, or settled therein, blending with the above. All the nations of Europe, even Hungarians, Polanders, Greeks and Turks, have been brought there. Pirates of all nations, even Algerines, have wandered to America. Almost all the nations of Africa have been led there in slavery. Asia has sent Jews, Hindus, Gypsies or Zinganis, Chinese and Tartars: while Oceania has sent Malays, Madagascars, Hawayans, &c.

This well known fact of the various and anomalous modern population of both Americas within 3 or 4 centuries, will greatly help us to form a more correct estimate of the ancient population and colonization of such vast countries during many thousand years previous to 1492.

It is not yet suitable to give here a complete list of all the ancient nations, who have, or may have colonized the Western hemisphere: this can only be done afterwards as a result of the instituted enquiries on the subject. Meantime I state as highly probable, even by mere analogy, that all the nearest nations of the Atlantic or Pacific Oceans, in the Eastern hemisphere, have either visited or colonized the Americas; particularly from the east, the bold navigators, Atlantes, Pelagians, Phenicians, Lybyans, Etruscans, &c., and from the west the ancient tribes of Tartars and Chinese, the Polynesians, &c. We shall throughout these historical outlines find ample proofs of this fact, exploding the erroneous belief that a single nation could have populated the whole of the Western Hemisphere. It shall appear also that these early settlers must have brought along many foreign tribes, as auxiliaries, vassals or slaves.

In my Atlantic Journal of 1832 will be found a kind of classification of the ancient nations of both Americas, divided into 25 groups, 14 in North, 11 in South America. But this first attempt, cannot be perfect: it requires a close study of all the American languages, before we can ascertain correctly all their mutual affinities, and reduce each to the real parent group. Meantime this attempt, and the further correction of it in this work, will become very useful historical bases. I give therefore the list of the 25 groups, with a well known nation and language as the type, to which others may be gradually reduced.

In North America 1. _Uski_ or _Innuit_, type the Esquimaux.

2. _Ongwi_, type the Hurons and Iroquois.

3. _Linni_, type the Lanapi or Delawares.

4. _Wacash_, type the Chopunish, and Nutkas.

5. _Skerreh_, type the Panis.

6. _Nachez_, type the Cados and Chetimachas.

7. _Capaha_, types the Washas or Ozages, and Dacotas or Sioux.

8. _Chactah_, types the Chactahs and Chicasas.

9. _Otali_, Tzulukis or Cherokis.

10. _Atalan_, type the Tarascas.

11. _Otomi_, type the Otomis.

12. _Anahuac_, type the Aztecas.

13. _Maya_, types the Mayas and Huaztecas.

14. _Chontal_, type the Tzendals and Chols.

In South America 15. _Aruac_, types the Haytians, Aruacs, Taos, &c.

16. _Calina_, types the Caribs and Tamanacs.

17. _Puris_, type the Maypuris.

18. _Yarura_, types the Guaraos and Betoys.

19. _Cuna_, type the Dariens.

20. _Mayna_, type the Panos.

21. _Maca_, type the Muyzcas.

22. _Guarani_, type the Tupis and Omaguas.

23. _Mara_, type the Quichuas and Aymaras.

24. _Lulé_, types the Vilelas and Mbayas.

25. _Chili_, type the Chilians.

Notwithstanding the condensed form of these outlines, the ample materials to be brought together, will extend them perhaps beyond the desirable limits. In order to lessen this difficulty and yet omit nothing that is new or important, the work will be divided into three series.

1st. The annals of South America, where many generalities will be introduced, that need not be repeated in the 2d series, on the annals of North America.

3d. Illustrations of these outlines, where will be thrown and collected all the collateral proofs, documents, vocabularies of languages, manuscript facts and events, essential quotations, and results of all the investigations.

The Peruvian and Austral regions of South America will first be introduced, because of paramount importance. By the Peruvian region is meant the whole western part of South America from the equator to the southern tropic, and by Austral America, the whole of it from that tropic to the Magellanic Islands. The gulf of Rio Plata and the river Paraguay, appear to divide these regions from Brazil, both physically and historically. Austral America includes the countries and nations of Chili, Tucuman, Chaco, Buenos Ayres, Patagonia and Magellania; but it shall often be needful to mention their neighbors, with whom they are more or less related, and even distant nations that are not always strangers to them.

The ancient nations of Austral America are the least known on many accounts, and those on whom most fables and systems have been based. It is there that dwell the _Patagons_, who have been believed a peculiar species of giants; and those tribes of Chaco, &c., which Azara has deemed peculiar men, with languages without affinities with any other: which will easily be proved to be quite false.

If America has had an aboriginal population, or _Autoctons_, men born from the soil: it is there they should be found, driven to the south and those remote climes by the ancient colonies of other nations; and they should offer features, complexions, languages and manners totally different from any other. If all the Americans derive from ancient colonies, it is still there that ought to be found the primitive tribes, driven on by the subsequent colonies and tribes. Therefore these Austral tribes are exceedingly interesting to study as the most ancient relics of American population.

But the origin of the American nations and tribes are only to be considered as a branch of their history. The accounts of their dispersion and successive settlements, the history of the events which they have remembered and transmitted to us by traditions or annals, those of the empires which have been founded there in ancient and modern times, the study of their civilization and ethnography ... offer surely much more interest, and a wide field of historical facts or enquiries.

It appears that as soon as we speak of the ancient Americans, we ought to cut the gordian knot, and say whence they came. I do not wish to explain beforehand, all my views on this subject. I wish to reserve them for the results of the enquiries to be pursued in this work. Yet to satisfy the general curiosity expressed on the subject, I may venture to say that I have not yet found in either Americas, any people or tribe totally different from any other, or without philological affinities: nor with features, complexions, and other physical characters quite peculiar. But instead, all the ancient American tribes have numerous affinities between each other, and with races of mankind in the Eastern hemisphere: both physical and moral, as well as philological.

If the American nations sprung from ancient colonies; it is among the primitive population of the earth, that their parents must be sought and found: since America appears to have been partly peopled even before the flood. Therefore the systems which would derive them all from the Phenicians, Jews, Chinese, Tartars of later ages, or any single people whatever, must be absurd and improbable: since traces of many ancient nations are found in this western hemisphere.

It has always appeared probable to me that most of the ancient colonies to America, must have come there by the nearest and most direct way; the same nearly followed again by Columbus in 1492: either from north Africa or south Europe. This becomes still more probable if there were formerly a land or large islands in the Atlantic Ocean; of which we have ample proofs. Nearly all the nations from Florida and Mexico to Chili, appear to have reached America from the east, through the tropical islands or Antilles; but the ancestors of these emigrating tribes, dwelt once in Asia, which appears the cradle of mankind.

However, many nations of Brazil and Guyana are more recent and of African origin; while nearly all those of North America appear to have reached America by the opposite direction of Eastern Asia, through Alaska or the Streight of Behring, once an Isthmus. Therefore the Colonial tribes came here from the East, and the North West. It is more doubtful that any came from the West or Polynesia.

What is now needful, is to trace these colonies, their travels, epochas, and ascertain the nations which they have produced in both Americas. This I will endeavour to do, without being prevented by the difficulties of the task. I shall always seek to ascertain the true names of each nation or tribe: which have often been disguised under a crowd of nicknames and erroneous orthographies. These names when thus restored will often furnish an original key, to supply the scarcely known languages, or lost traditions.

The Brigands who brought desolation over both Americas during two centuries, and the careless travellers who visited them in search of wealth, took little notice of the languages and traditions of their victims or foes. Thus we have to regret the loss of many valuable materials, merely indicated. However, a few enlightened visitors, and the missionaries have preserved some of them. The first attempt of the kind was the outlines of historical songs and traditions of Hayti, collected as early as 1498 by friar Roman, at the request of Columbus; printed by his son, and by Barcias. Yet this valuable document has escaped the notice of nearly all the writers on America! evident proof of utter carelessness or neglect.

Piedrahita has given some of the historical traditions of the Muyzcas; Juarros the annals of the Toltecas of Guatimala; Ayeta and Herrera those of the Mayas of Yucatan. Yet they have been neglected by our historians. They have merely dwelt, and even sparingly, on the annals of Mexico and Peru. We have besides fragments on the early history of the Ongwis, Linapis, Apalachis, Caribs, Dariens, and a few more; but we have to regret the loss of the written annals of many civilized nations, the Tarascas, Huaztecas, Zapotecas, Nicaraguas, Chontals, Chilians, Panos, &c. Some of which may perhaps be yet partly recovered, as those of the Ongwis and Linapis have lately been.

It is only since last age that the study of comparative philology has begun to be appreciated: and quite recently that languages have been made subservient to historical researches. Pigafetta had, however, set the examples as early as 1520 to collect American vocabularies, of which he gave two, the Brazilian and Patagon: which are quite important, since by them we trace both tribes seen by him to the ARUAC race. For lack of frequent ancient vocabularies, we must often grope in the dark; but I do not despair to be able to restore many lost languages, by fragments escaped from the common ruin. I have already succeeded with the _Taino_ of Hayti, the _Cahiri_ of Trinidad, _Talega_ and _Apalachi_ of North America, the _Chontal_ of central America, the _Colla_ of Peru, and the _Séké_ of old Chili; whereby I shall draw some happy conclusions.

Asia has been the country of fables, Africa of monsters, and America of systems, for those who prefer opinions to reality. The systems and hypotheses of philosophy or ignorance upon America, exceed all the Asiatic fables. A crowd of prejudices, false opinions and fantastic theories, have been asserted on this hemisphere, often mistaking a small part of it for the whole. Some have declared all the Americans a red, beardless, naked and barbarous race, or a peculiar species of men. Others that they came out of the ground or from the clouds, or over a bridge, instead of boats or on the ice. Others that they are all Jews, or Malays, or Tartars. Lastly, even that Eden was here and Noah built the ark in America! All these systems and fifty more brought forth by ignorance or pride, are based upon the most absurd proofs, or a few insulated facts: while there are historical facts easy to prove that are neglected or forgotten.

Thus it is a positive fact that many ancient nations of the east, such as the Lybians, Moors, Etruscans, Phenicians, Hindus, &c. had heard of America, or knew nearly as much of it, as we did of Australia and Polynesia 100 years ago. It is as certain that America contained anciently, as even now, a crowd of distinct nations and tribes; some of which were quite civilized, perhaps as much as the Spaniards led by Columbus; the others more barbarous, but not entirely savage. There were but few, if any, real savages in America, dwelling in woods without social ties; most of them were wandering tribes of fishermen or hunters.

There were formerly in America as now, tribes of all complexions, as elsewhere: yellowish, olive, coppery, tawny, redened, brown, incarnate or white, and even blackened or negro-like. Tall and dwarfish men from 8 to 4 feet in size, called giants and pygmies—men with various frames, skulls, and features, of all the sorts found in the eastern hemisphere.

The Americans had long before Columbus, large cities; built of stones, bricks or wood, with walls, ditches, temples, palaces. Some of which were of immense size and population. One of them _Otolum_ near Palenque was 28 miles long, equal to Thebes, Babylon and Kinoj in size and monuments. Nearly all the ancient sciences and useful primitive arts were known in America, as well as commerce and navigation, symbolic and alphabetic writing, nearly all the Asiatic religions, &c. The most civilized nations had even colleges and universities, canals and paved roads, splendid temples and monuments, &c.

It would be tedious to designate all what has not been told, or been very unworthily noticed, upon America. The whole of these outlines shall be comments upon the forgotten facts relating to this third of the world. Such as are found recorded by chance in one or few authors, scattered in 1000 volumes, unsought and unnoticed by nearly all the other writers.

Respecting the chronology of the American annals, it is rather obscure and doubtful; but perhaps not more so than that of all ancient nations except the Chinese. It frequently ascends as far as the floods and even the creation. The most ancient dates are found among the Tols or Toltecas and Atlantes, Mexicans or Aztecas, the Muyzcas, Ongwis, Linapis, &c. But it is difficult to make those dates agree among themselves, or with our oriental dates. However the American annals may be divided into great periods, which can be admitted as certain, and resting points of history at peculiar epochas.

Here is their tabular view.

I. Ancient history, ending with Columbus in 1492.

1. _Antidiluvian period_, beginning at the creation, about 6690 years before Columbus according to the Tols, and ending with the last cataclysm of Peleg, about 3788 years before Columbus.

2. _Doubtful period_, from that epocha till the reform of Tol astronomy, 1612 years before Columbus. This includes several subordinate periods and epochas.

About 3100 years before Columbus, settlement of the Linapis in Shinaki or Firland or Oregon in N. W. America.

About 2500 years before Columbus, wars of the Towancas and Ongwis, the hero Yatatan, &c. in North America.

3. _Certain period_, from 1612 till Columbus’ arrival in 1492. Many lesser periods and epochas.

442, after Christ—End of the Tollan kingdom.

492,—Beginning of Atotarho dynasty of Ongwis.

558,—Empire of Tol-tecas begins in Anahuac, and lasts till 942.

840,—Beginning of the wars of Zipanas and Caris in South Peru.

947,—Foundation of the kingdom of Mayapan by Cuculcan in Yucatan.

985,—Discovery of America by the Norwegians.

1000,—Conquest of Quito by the Skiris.

1105,—Beginning of the Incas empire.

1322,—Foundation of Tenuchtitlan or Mexico.

II. Modern history, from 1492 till our days.

1. _Colonial Period_, from 1492 till 1776.

2. _Independent Period_, beginning in 1776. The foundation of the empire of Brazil in 1822 may begin a subordinate period.

Each age may bear the name of a wise legislator or eminent personage: the ages of modern history are those of 1. Columbus, 2. Las-Casas, 3. William Penn, 4. Washington, 5. Bolivar.

Chapter II.

MATERIALS FOR THE HISTORY OF THE AMERICANS.—_Authors, Documents, Sciences.—Languages, Civilization, &c._

Far from following the example of many American historians, who often take a single guide for their crude compilations, or avoid the trouble to consult all the historical sources, I have taken care in my researches to employ all the possible means to reach the truth, and collect all the facts that are scattered among a crowd of writers. I have carefully analysed, compared and judged the materials, details and events thus procured: nay, all the auxiliary sciences have afforded additional fragments or proofs.

These materials may be divided into 10 series or kinds

1. Works, printed or manuscript. 2. Documents and monuments. 3. Maps, plans, views, &c. 4. Natural sciences. 5. Ethnography. 6. Traditions and annals. 7. Chronology and astronomy. 8. Languages and philology. 9. Religion, mythologies, &c. 10. Civilization, laws and manners.

The writers upon America are very numerous; but mostly defective or local. A number, however, have attempted to consider the whole continent: the principal among those containing facts upon all parts of America are chiefly

Herrera, History and Geography of Spanish America carried till the year 1554.

Delaet, Historical Geography of America, till 1630.

Garcias, Origins of the Americans.—Spanish work.

Carli, American Letters.—Italian work.

Ogilby, History and Geography of America, till 1670.

Raynal, European Settlements in America, till 1774.

Alcedo, Geographical Dictionary of Spanish America in 1786.—Spanish work.

Maltebrun, Improved Geography, 1820.

Touron, History of America, chiefly ecclesiastical, and incomplete, 14 volumes 1768-70, in French.

Robertson, false History of America or Spanish Conquests of Mexico or Peru.

The collections of travels by Hackluyt, Purchas, Harris, Ramusio, Barcias, Prevost, &c.

The American researches of Ulloa, Humboldt, M’Culloh, &c.

I have consulted and analyzed all these general works, and many others of less account; but I have not yet read Hervas nor Compagnone, knowing them merely through quotations

The first _Bibliotheca Americana_ or catalogue of writers on America, was given by Kennet in 1701 and 1713. Another appeared in England in 1719; a third in France in 1820. They contain the names, authors, editions, dates, &c. of over 300 works relating to America. Robertson has given a list of nearly as many, which he pretends to have consulted, although he neglected what they tell us. Humboldt has also a catalogue of 250 authors, consulted by him. In 1831, Aspinwall published his American Library containing 771 works; and Warden, in Paris, his own, containing 977 American works with 133 atlasses and maps.

All this does not complete the account of books on America; since I have seen many omitted in all these catalogues; although I never could meet some mentioned there. I will carefully notice them, that it may be known where I found my materials, and what may yet have escaped my researches. I have already consulted upwards of 600 writers on both Americas, and there are at least 1000 already printed, I mean special or local works connected with history. If we were to add to these the botanists, naturalists, paltry compilers, and pamphlets, we might make a catalogue of 3000 works on America, her inhabitants and productions.

I will refer gradually to them, and have collected them all in my manuscript illustrations; _materials_, _printed works_. Therefore we do not lack printed materials: but the choice of the best is difficult: since many works merely consist in fables, blunders, errors, hypotheses and their constant repetitions: which ought to be rejected in order to gather facts and the truth. But we must not reject as pyrrhoniams all that may clash with our ideas and systems: it is chiefly needful so recall and restore the events and facts mentioned by the earliest travellers and observers.

These numerous local writers ought to be divided into three classes. 1. historians and annalists, 2. travellers and geographers, 3. antiquarians and philologists. I shall now merely mention the most useful (which I have all consulted) upon the Peruvian and Austral regions of South America.

1st. The principal historians are, 1. Molina, History of Chili, 2. Funes, Civil History of Buenos Ayres, Paraguay and Tucuman, 3. Lavega, History of Peru, 4. Debrizoffer, history of Abipones, 5. Charlevoix of Paraguay, 6. Techo, on Ditto, 7, 8. Lozano and Jolis on Chaco, 9. Muratori, and 10. Renger, Paraguay.

2d. The principal writers who have furnished historical facts, with geographical and ethnographical materials, are _old travellers_, 1. Pigafetta and Magellan, 2. Cabot, 3. Shmidel, 4. Drake, 5. Cavendish, 6. Acarete, 7. Knivet, 8. Frezier, 9. Sepp, 10. Brewer, 11. Nyel, 12. Schmidtmeyer.

_The modern travellers are_, 1. Azara, 2. D’Ulloa, 3. Humboldt, 4. Cook, 5. Byron, 6. Laperouse, 7. Stevenson, 8. Myers, 9. Heyn, 10. Beaumont, 11. Gillespie, 12. Vidal, 13. Wedel, 14. King, 15. Morrell, 16. Andrew, 17. Temple, 18. Mawe, 19. Proctor, 20. Graham, 21. Head, 22. Pernetty.

The principal original geographers and ethnographers are, 1. Fernandez on Chiquitos 1726, 2. Bueno, Ditto 1800, 3. Falkner, on Patagonia 1774, 4. Molina on Chili and Cuyo, 5. Lozano on Chaco 1733, 6. Skinner, Memoirs on Peru, 7. Gili, South America 1782.

3d. Lastly the auxiliary writers on philology, antiquities and other historical branches are, 1. Adelung, Vater, Maltebrun, Balbi, &c., on all American languages, 2. American researches of Humboldt, Macculoh 1829. Those of Depaw and Ranking are shameful, perverting every thing to support false systems.

_Manuscripts._ There are yet many such extant on America, in the libraries of both hemispheres. Clavigero gave a long list of Mexican Manuscripts. Funes quotes several on Austral America. There are several extant in Central America and South America, in Peru and Brazil. Many have been lost through wilful neglect, or destroyed at the Spanish Conquest, the expulsion of Jesuits, &c. Those in the ancient languages, Mexican, Tarasca, Tzendal, &c., are now very rare, and much esteemed. Those burnt by Zumaraga, the Mexican Omar, have been often regretted. Lord Kingborough has lately published some at a great cost.

The manuscripts which I could consult on South America are but few. Those on North America are more numerous and very important; particularly the traditions of the Linapis, Shawanis, &c., they are chiefly on wood, bark, skins or Mosaic strings. But I have received several manuscript vocabularies of the languages of Guyana, Brazil, Texas, Mexico, &c. and I have consulted several manuscripts in the libraries of Philadelphia.

There are, besides, in the public or private libraries of all the great cities of both Americas, several interesting historical works, which have never been published.

There are several in Philadelphia, particularly the historical collections of Simetierre. Often the best or most important works cannot be printed: while a crowd of paltry compilations are ushered to deceive the public. This may be deemed a remainder of the prevailing ignorance and error. Instead of appreciating the learned and useful works, the prevailing taste is for historical romances and systematic fables. It is needful to seek these previous labors, which run the risk of being totally lost, if we will not have again to blush hereafter for these historical losses.

I give the list of such among my own manuscripts, as have been employed to write this history. They are yet in my possession, but I wish to see them deposited in a great public library; where they might be consulted.

1. Materials for the history, ethnography, &c. of the Americans, their annals, chronology, &c. 40 books, begun in 1820, continued ever since, and not yet closed.

2. Vocabularies of the ancient and modern languages of both Americas, symbols, glyphs, &c., 4 books, begun 1824.

3. Comparative geography and ethnography of ancient and modern America, 5 books, with maps, &c., begun 1824.

4. Ancient monuments of North and South America, compared with the primitive monuments of the eastern hemisphere, 3 books and 200 plans, &c., 1822.

5. TELLUS, or the primitive History of the Earth and Mankind in Protholia, Oceania and Neotholia, with the ancient and modern general ethnography, 30 books, begun in 1821.

6. Synglosson, or compared examination of all languages and nations, 6 books, begun 1825.

7. Iconographical Illustrations of all my historical works and travels, containing over 1000 maps, plans, views, costumes, portraits, alphabets, symbols, implements, &c., in 10 cartoons, begun 1816.

8. Travels in North America, in 1802, 3, 4, and from 1815 to 1835. In many manuscript books and journals.

I have often been apprehensive of the fate of Boturini, for these interesting manuscript and long researches. This has happened already for one of my manuscripts. As early as 1825 I sent to the Academy of Science in Boston, a manuscript of 240 pages, being an _account of the materials yet existing for the history of the nations and tribes of America before Columbus_. This was for an offered prize of $100: which was never awarded, although my memoir was declared the best sent. And instead of depositing this manuscript in the library of the American Antiquarian Society as requested, it has been _lost_ or _stolen_. If never recovered, and that the public may judge of the merits of it, at such an early period of my historical studies: I will state the principal results of my enquiries therein; which tenor, together with their length, were the ostensible reasons for not awarding a prize probably never meant to be awarded.

I therein proved in 1825, 1st. that there are yet materials enough, notwithstanding the loss of many, for an ancient history of America.

2. That a complete American history ought to employ and combine all the materials afforded by geology, geography, physics, chronology, physiology, ethnology, archeology, philology, on America, with all the traditions of the Americans.

3. Geology and physical geography indicates the cradles and ancient settlements of mankind, the revolutions of nature, the places unfit for population, the means of access, probable route of colonies, &c.

4. America has an ancient geography previous to 1492, which ought to be restored.

5. The coincidence of names of nations and tribes, afford a comparitive concordance, indicating ancient connections or identity.

6. The ancient American population, must have been derived from the nearest shores of Africa, Europe and Asia. The points where all the indications and traditions tend, are the Antilles, next Paria and Guyana in South America; Anian or Tollan and Alaska in the N. W with Sucanunga or Groenland to the N. E.

7. The philological solution of historical affinities must be sought in the roots of the languages, their conformity or analogies, the number of similar sounds, roots and words; which are susceptible of a mathematical calculation, and referable to the theory of probabilities.

8. Many primitive nations in all parts of the earth, may thus be proved to have been akin or related.

9. Noah’s flood was nearly general; but perhaps not universal. His ark or THBE was perhaps Thibet: and his 3 sons 3 nations saved there.

10. It has been proved that all the antidiluvian patriarchs were Nations, their long ages being the duration of dynasties or states. This opinion may also be entertained of many other ancient patriarchs or heads of tribes, every where, by the usual figure of personification.

11. Peleg’s flood was volcanic, not so general as Noah’s. There may have been many successive cataclysms blended in this, as this has been often mistaken in date for Noah’s.

12. The cradle of the Tulans or Mexican nations, must have been the Tulan of Asia, since Turan and Tartary. There are many places called Tula, all over the earth, indicating settlements of Atlantes.

13. The ancient chronology of America may be restored. Several dates given, a system proposed.

14. All the races and complexions of mankind are found in America.

15. America was known to the ancient nations, particularly the Atlantes, Pelagians, Phenicians, &c.

16. Some highlands of America were not covered at Noah’s flood, and might become the azylums of men, animals, and vegetation. However, but few nations can be traced to these azylums in America.

17. The ancient monuments of both Americas, are similar to the primitive monuments of Asia, Africa and Europe.

18. The ancient inscriptions of America can be explained. A key may be found for all: some are evidently pelagic.

19. The religions of the Americans, were similar to the primitive religions of the eastern hemisphere.

20. The manners and customs, of the Americans, are very various, and form no peculiar test.

21. Many American nations were highly civilized, besides the Mexicans and Peruvians: skilful in agriculture, and the arts, having cattle, colleges, &c.

My reward for having ascertained and proved those facts, was to be denied the prize, and to have my manuscript mislaid or lost or stolen! My historical researches ever since have continued to confirm nearly all these facts.(1)

2. _Documents and monuments._ The historical titles and proofs, inscriptions, medals, coins, charters, &c., which are so common elsewhere, are but few as yet, in America, belonging to early times: most belong to modern history.

There are some ancient inscriptions scattered in South America; but not yet published. Molina speaks of one on a pyramid of Cuyo, which late travellers have not found. Those of Otolum near Palenqué in Central America begin to excite great attention; and I have sought a key for them.(2)

Ancient metallic coins and medals, really Americans, are exceedingly scarce: yet there are some in Central America. Several medals, perhaps foreign and indicating a communication, have been found, but again lost or neglected; few have been figured or explained.

Implements, tools, sculptures, objects of arts, pottery, weapons, &c. of the ancient Americans are found in all the museums; but excite little attention, by not being concentrated, accumulated nor classified. Many fine specimens of arts have been melted, or broken and lost. The astronomical stones of the Mexicans and Muyzcas have been preserved; but those of Peru and Central America are lost; as well as that beautiful one of the Talegas of North America, a dodecagone, with 144 hieroglyphic signs, found in the Ohio, and once kept in a museum of Philadelphia.

The ancient monuments of both Americas, are very numerous, indicating a dense population in places since become wild and desolate, as in North America, Guyana, Brazil, &c. They are most numerous in the central parts of both Americas, and lessen towards both ends. Yet they are met from lat. 45 N. to 45 S. They are very variable in different parts; by no means identic, indicating different builders or many degrees of civilization, from the rudest arts to the most refined: employing many materials, earth, clay, gravel, stone, wood, unbaked bricks; being either irregular cyclopian structures, or regular buildings of rough or cut stones, _pizé_ or beaten clay, &c.

We do not know as yet one half of those in existence, and many have never been described nor figured. Yet they afford every where, one of the most evident and certain base of historical researches, confirming traditions, or revealing the seats of former empires, their civilization, &c. They consist chiefly in mounds, altars, tumuli or tombs, ruined cities, villages and forts, temples and dwellings; but we find besides in various places, traces of ancient palaces, bridges, roads, causeways, canals, mines, dromes, baths, pyramids, towers, pillars, rocking stones, walls, wells, pits &c. They generally resemble the primitive monuments of the same kind, met with in the eastern hemisphere, from England and Ireland to Mauritania and Africa, extending east to Lybia, Syria, Russia, Persia, Tartary, &c. They have less resemblance with the monuments of Egypt, Greece, Rome, India and China; yet some kinds somewhat assimilate. In fact, there are, throughout both Americas, three very distinct classes of monuments, indicating distinct arts and architecture.

The first or rudest, assimilate nearly to those yet used by the rudest tribes in the north or in Brazil, Antilles, &c., indicating a similar barbarous state.

The second or primitive, is known by using wood and earth instead of stones for buildings.

The third or most refined, employed stones, often well cut as in Mexico, Central America, Peru, &c., and indicates arts nearly equal to those of Egypt and India.

Besides such great monumental remains; there are lesser antiquities; fragments of sculpture, statues, idols, painting, Mosaic, &c., either in metals, stones, pottery, beads, &c., found every where mixed with the others.

But the most singular and dubious relics of antiquity, are subteraneous or in excavations: these are in caves, mines, pits, &c.: while under ground are found trees, stumps, charcoal, ashes, shells, pavements, walls, houses, &c. that must have been buried by alluvions, diluvions or new formed soil. It has been surmised or ascertained that some may be antidiluvian: although those in deep alluvial soils, near streams, and connected with graves, may have been buried by men, or fluvial inundations. Mummies, skeletons and bones, with human apparel and implements have been found in caves, evidently buried there by human means, and not by floods. Human remains are but seldom if ever connected with the organic remains of the soil and caves, even of the latest geological date.

3. _Geography, Maps, &c._ The knowledge of the regions and localities inhabited by mankind, or where colonies are sent, empires founded, is needful to history, in order to understand and treat the events and migrations. The physical configuration of the land, the climates, plains, mountains and streams, have a great influence on civilization and communications. Physical geography is constant and invariable: while civil or ethnographical geography is constantly fluctuating in limits and names.

If we had complete series of maps by chronological order upon America; we should find therein the materials for a comparative historical geography, and successive ethnography, showing the gradual revolutions of mankind. The old maps of America, those of Laet, the old geographers &c. are very valuable for this object. Many travellers in America, have given original maps, which furnish similar materials. I have chiefly used for Peru and Austral America, the maps of Laet, Acarete, D’Anville, Molina, Falkner, Cochrane, Wedel, the Jesuits, &c. Among the modern general maps, relating to South America, the Spanish maps of 1810 and 1822, the English of 1815, the French of 1830, the latest American of Tanner, &c. By those materials I have been able to trace and fix four periods of American geography, 2 ancient and 2 modern.

I. Primitive geography of America.

II. Ancient ditto, or between 1400 and 1500.

III. Modern colonial geography.

IV. Modern independent geography.

I have formed Mpt. maps of the two first periods, which shall be published gradually, or in my Illustrations of the Ancient Geography of America. We have thousands of maps on the early geography of the Eastern Hemisphere, and no one as yet on the Western Hemisphere! to show the respective limits and positions of Ancient Empires, Nations, Cities, &c., except Clavigero’s map of Anahuac at the Spanish conquest, those of Hayti, Laet, &.c.

We have the plans of Ancient Mexico and Cuzco; but lack those of Tiahuanaco, Otolum, and many more important for ancient history. Several plans of ancient sites of civilization have been given, along with those of monuments. I have many in Mpt. yet unpublished. The greatest part of modern cities, are built on ancient sites, from Mexico to Chili. In North America, the same happens with Cincinnati, Louisville, Pittsburg, St. Louis, Philadelphia, Savannah, &c. The views of ruined cities, and those of actual cities, are partly historical, connected with the knowledge of gradual American civilization.

Many ancient names of islands, lakes, streams and mountains, are preserved in actual names. Such are Cuba, Hayti—Ontario, Erie, Titicaca—Ohio, Alatamaha, Maranon, Parana, Rivers.—Alleghanies, Andes, Parima, Mountains, &c. When the names have been changed, it is the duty of the historical geographer to compare the old and new names.

The Mexicans and other civilized ancient nations, could draw and paint maps. Even our North American tribes can draw rude maps on skins or bark. Some of these are preserved in museums; but none have ever been published: although some are pretty correct and deserving it.

4. _Natural Sciences._ They are now becoming sisters of history. Geology is connected with geography. Botany and Zoology, acquaint us with trees, plants and animals, which were used in the arts and agriculture at different periods. The Asiatic origin of maize, called _maza_ by Hesiod and known to the Pelagians (Hughes Greece,) has been unperceived by Humboldt and many others, although it throws some light on the early migrations and communications of tribes. Maize was cultivated in Assyria, West Tartary, North Africa and Java, before 1492, as asserted by Marco Polo, Crawford, Raffles. Gebelin, &c.(3)

America had anciently several cereal plants, besides maize, two kinds of indigenous wheat and barley in Chili. The Quinoa and Zizania, the rice of South and North America. Many roots, beans, seeds, fruits and flowers, were cultivated from Canada to Chili. Native dies were abundant, the indigo and annato were natives. Red and yellow cochineal were nursed and collected. Many peculiar kinds of cotton, silks, hemp, flax, agave, palm, &c., were cultivated or collected to use for cloths, threads, ropes, &c.

Paleontology, a new science, seeks for the remains of animals dwelling on earth, before mankind. America has already afforded the huge mastodons, elephants, megatherium, megalonyx, as primitive land animals, and many large reptiles, crocodiles of streams and lakes.

American Zoology is very peculiar: a few arctic quadrupeds, birds and insects excepted; all the animals of this hemisphere are peculiar to it. Reptiles almost entirely such, even in the North. All the American monkeys form distinct species. The tropical animals of the two hemispheres are distinct, even often in genera. Out of 33 quadrupeds formerly domesticated in America, the dog only may be deemed a stranger: and it had even many American varieties.

The domestic quadrupeds of ancient America were 33, while only 25 in Asia, Africa and Europe. Among them were 4 species of Vicunia, 4 of Agutis, 2 deer, 2 hogs, 10 monkeys, &c. See my dissertation on the domestic animals of both hemispheres, 1832. Americans had also tamed 22 birds or fowls, as many as Asia, &c., and even some reptiles, fishes, insects, &c., had become domestic: altogether 112 in America and only 80 in Europe, Asia, &c., before 1492.

American botany offers many peculiar regions; in the North only, akin to Asiatic or European botany; but becoming quite distinct in the tropics, still more so in Austral America. Since 1492 the European colonists have brought many plants, that are become spontaneous from Canada to Chili: these must be carefully separated from the ancient indigenous plants.

The American Floras are nearly as many as the 15 natural regions already indicated, each having a focal seat or cradle in some range of mountains. They become richer or more abundant in species within the tropics, decreasing to the North and South. Trees and palm abound there, and disappear near the poles, the palms are unknown beyond the 36 degrees North and South. The equator has 500 species of trees; in latitude 40 N. and S. only 100 kinds are found, or even less. Social plants and grasses abound in plains, and in the North dwindle to mosses and lichens.

Trees were early tools of civilization, affording timber, fuel, dies, houses, boats, weapons, &c. Fruit trees afforded food in abundance: even the tribes of North America near latitude 40 d. had 40 kinds of native wild fruits, and had begun to plant orchards of plumtrees, peachtrees, crab-trees, nut-trees. They knew how to make oils of nuts, to dry the fruits, make sugars out of maples and other trees.

Fish has always afforded an ample supply of food to early nations, whence the preference to dwell near streams, Lakes and shores. Notwithstanding the swimming rambles of fishes, it is only the pelagic or oceanic tribes of them that are common to both hemispheres. Most of the resident shore fishes of America are peculiar species. Still more so with lacustral and fluviatile fishes. These are divided into peculiar regions. Our northern lakes form one; and almost every large stream has a peculiar generation of finny tribes: such are the Mississippi, Maranon, Parana, the Atlantic streams and rivers, those of Brazil, &c.

Minerals abound in both Americas. It was gold and silver that drew hither the greedy Spanish freebooters. The civilized nations knew mining, smelting, casting and forging. They used gold, silver, copper, brass, lead, &c.; collected and prized gems, emeralds, agats, volcanic glass, &c. Even the less civilized tribes of North America used copper and lead, clays for pipes, pottery, &c. Iron was scarce because so hard to melt, and highly prized; but iron-rings have been found as jewels around the wrists of skeletons.

Metallic coins were little known except in Central America; but bits of silver, gold, tin, iron, were used as such. The other mediums of exchange were skins, mats, nuts, cacao, shells, beads, mosaic works, &c. Commerce was well known to many nations; traders went 500 miles to exchange commodities in Florida, Mexico, Yucatan, Peru, &c. Navigators went by sea for the same purpose all over the Antilles, coast of Peru, and in the great streams. It is thus that were found many strange and foreign objects, jewels, medals, metals, &c., all over America, and in early tombs.

5. _Ethnography._ This new science which undertakes to describe nations, reckons already many peculiar branches. Anthropography or the knowledge of physical mankind. Philology or the comparative study of human speech and languages. Besides the nameless branch attending to the moral ideas, arts, institutions, manners, civilization, governments and religions of mankind; which might be called moral ethnography.

All these studies become the philosophy of history, and shall duly command my attention. Some writers neglect them altogether; others, like Robertson, do not know how to collect and accumulate facts instead of systems: Rollin has shown in his Ancient History, how useful moral ethnography may be as an auxiliary: although he omitted philology and physical facts.

I have studied the men of all the parts of the world, in order to know and compare them, better than had been done. All the errors on the histories of nations, proceed commonly from the slender or partial views acquired or admitted by the writers. There is much to glean on the ethnography of modern nations, and therefrom we may ascend to ancient ethnography. It would be needful to study well the physical and moral features of all; the shapes of bodies, skulls, faces and limbs; the complexions of the skin, hairs and eyes; with the casual or permanent varieties.

But, above all, we must better study all the spoken languages and dialects. It is strange that we hardly know anything, and sometimes nothing at all, on the languages of many existing tribes, with whom we have intercourse in both Americas. It would be desirable to procure at least a vocabulary of 100 essential words, in each. Such words, including the cardinal numbers, will soon become the key of ethnographical philology. While the additional study of phonology or sounds of languages, their idioms and grammars, their roots, and verbs, the alphabets, glyphs and symbols used to communicate ideas, will combine to furnish the complete knowledge of philology as a separate science. Although I have not always carried so far my researches; I did so for a few, applying chiefly myself to the essential features of languages; and the unexpected results will be surprising.

American anthropography will teach that there were men of all sizes, features and complexions, in this hemisphere before 1492: notwithstanding the false assertions of many writers, who take one nation for the whole American group. The Uskihs, the Puruays, the Parias, the Chons, &c. were as white as the Spaniards, 50 such tribes were found in South America; while many tribes of Choco, the Manabis, the Yaruras, &c., were as black as negroes. All the other shades of brown, tawny and coppery, were scattered every where. There was not a single red man in America, unless painted such. Some tribes had scanty beards as the Tartars, Chinese, Berbers, &c., others bushy beards. The Tinguis or Patagons were 7 or 8 feet high, and the Guaymas only 4 or 5 feet.

6. _Traditions and Annals._ Many American nations preserve a memory of historical events by unwritten traditions, repeated from fathers to sons; or communicated orally by the priests, chiefs or elderly men. Many are preserved yet to this day, by frequent repetitions, being embodied in songs, hymns, maxims, tales, drawings, or even symbolic figures and signs. Many of those traditions are precious for history, notwithstanding the fables, allegories, metaphors, personifications, &c., which partly conceal them or render the meaning obscure. We must learn to decipher them as we do old inscriptions and medals.

Although many such are now nearly lost for us, by the extinction of the living books, who kept the remembrance: there are many already collected, and of which we ought to make a good use. But there are as many more, which have never been collected nor printed. I have collected many such in North America in manuscript. It often happens that the American tribes will not communicate them to their foes or oppressors; but their friends and allies may hope to receive the deposit of them. Every enlightened traveller ought to seek for them wherever he goes. Yet after being acquired, they are sometimes lost again, by neglect. I have known some learned and unlearned men despise them equally as _Indian Stories_, because they despise the ancient American race. There are, however, as yet many historical songs, poems and tales to collect among all the American tribes, which falling in good hands cannot fail to attract notice and be employed usefully. Every one who neglects or destroys them acts as a vandal. Malcolm has said at the outset of his history of Persia, that we ought never to neglect the original notions of a people on its origin, or early history, since therein is found the germ and spring of their subsequent conduct, actions and opinions.

My illustrations shall contain many unpublished or forgotten traditions, whereof I shall avail myself in all my historical annals and researches. I consider those of the Uskihs, Dinnis, Ongwis, Linapis, Shawanis, Cados, Natchez, Ozages, Atakapas, Apalachians, &c., as highly important for the annals of North America. The same may be said of the Mexicans, Zapotecas, Mayas, Toltecas, Chols, &c., for Central America. Of the Haytians, Cubans and Caribs for the Antilles. And in South America those of the Muyzcas, Cumanans, Tamanacs, Popayans, Peruvians, Chilians, Brazilians, Abipons, &c.

7. _Chronology and Astronomy._ These two sciences always go together, and form a double key of history. The American chronology is by no means fixed before 1492, and requires a skillful hand to preserve and compare all the heterogenous dates heretofore collected. I shall attempt to elucidate it gradually; but may often be compelled, as in geology, to relate only successive events without dates, and merely referred to a series of gradual facts. In Austral America, we are told that none had notions of astronomy and dates, except the Chilians; yet their chronology begins only in 1450. I doubt this: I rather believe that their oral traditions have been neglected, as well as those of their neighbours.

In Peru, there are many positive dates, yet I was the first to reduce them to chronological order. In Brazil and Guyana, but few dates are found. The Muyzcas had very early dates, yet few have been preserved; much obscured by personifications of dynasties, and Pietrahita begins their real annals only in 1490, or 45 years before the Spanish invasion. In the Antilles the dates are quite loose, and difficult to reduce even to a serial order.

But in Central and Mexican America, we find many early dates with a regular chronology. Yet some are extravagant or contradictory. I shall endeavour to elucidate them, so as to reduce the whole to order. They must form the base of a regular American chronology, that ascends by dates to the flood and creation. In Yucatan the first regular date only reach to 940 after Christ.

In North America, where the smallest number of dates existed; we have unexpectedly and quite lately, found that many ancient dates could be procured. Cusick has published those of the Ongwi traditions, and I have ascertained those of the Linapis. Both of which reach to the flood and creation, and afford series of available dates as early as 1600 years before our era; thus nearly as ample as those of the TOL-tecas, and as plain in some instances.

Astronomy was cultivated by all the civilized nations of ancient America. They had cycles of 144, 104, 60, 52, 20, 15 and 13 solar years. Humboldt has well written on that subject; but much remains to be gleaned. The northern tribes reckon by generations as the Greeks, the Polynesians, &c., and by winters instead of years, moons instead of solar months. They had also a cycle of 60 years. In Central America, &c. the months were of 20 days, including 4 weeks of 5 days. But the Peruvians had months of 27 days, or 3 weeks of 9 days as the Etruscans. The Muyzcas small weeks of 3 days, &c. No where in ancient America, was found the sabatical week of days, based on the 7 planets and the 4 quarters of a lunation. This is remarkable, as evincing a remote antiquity, and separation before this week was adopted in Egypt, India, Syria, Celtica, &c.

Until 120 years before Christ the TOL-tecas reckoned only 365 days in the solar year, as the primitive nations of Asia: then they added the hours to the year. This forms their astronomical era. The Muyzcas had a very complicated astronomy, and three kinds of years. The usual was of 20 moons, and the ecclesiastical of 37 moons. The horal division unknown in many parts of America, was of 4 hours in the day for the Muyzcas and Mexicans, elsewhere of 5, 10 and 20. The 24 hours and the Zodiac of 12 signs with 360 degrees were not known. The Mexican Zodiac had 13 signs and 104 degrees.

Arithmetic is intimately connected with astronomy. A complete decimal numeration was known to all the civilized American nations, and even to the northern tribes. The most rude tribes reckoned by 5 or the manual mode; there are traces also of a binary numeration, the most simple of all: while others had complex calculations by 13 and by 20 or scores. We find no trace of any by 7, and but slight indications of a ternary numeration by 3 and 9. All these American modes of reckoning may thus be reduced to the _binary_, by two or pairs; and the quinary or manual by the five fingers, of which the decimal is the double, and by 20 the quadruple.

8. _Languages._ They are becoming one of the most important aids in history. When the annals are ample and clear, the examination of the languages is merely a supplement to historical knowledge; but when they are obscure, mutilated or totally lost; languages then supply more or less to their defects or loss. Their comparative study furnish us new lights to ascertain the origines, parentage, dispersions, colonies, alliances, wars, &c., of the nations thus deprived of written annals or even traditions. They serve also to rectify the imperfect annals or the fabulous traditions. This study may lead besides to trace the manners, religions, intercourse, arts and sciences of nearly all nations; since the proper languages of each people offers a picture of the civilization, acquired or borrowed knowledge, modes of life, &c. of each.

It is above all in both Americas that this study is indispensable in historical researches: I will therefore apply to languages in all cases, and make constant use of them; and they will unfold new facts quite unknown, although very important, Historical lights shall thereby be thrown on many obscure subjects, whence astonishing and unexpected results may spring, in which I shall depend as much as upon mutilated and neglectful traditions.

By taking into view all the American languages or as many as are already known, we shall easily dispel the errors and absurd systems of philosophers and philologists, who taking only a few as samples of the whole, have either deemed _all the Americans_, as many Jews, or Tartars, or Atlantes, or sprung from the ground, and so on. Now the fact is that these writers have never taken the trouble to compare the numerous American languages and dialects, reduce them to groups, and seek their affinities elsewhere.

Adelung and Vater had once stated without proof, that nearly 1200 languages existed in America. Balbi has reduced them to 423, of which 212 in South America; but they can be much further reduced, most of them being mere dialects. The whole may be comprised in 25 groups of languages, or even less; which were certainly identic in 25 languages 2 or 3000 years ago: and all of which have astonishing affinities with the groups of the eastern hemisphere, so as to indicate a parentage 4 or 5000 years ago.

Vater and Maltebrun have given a few hundred examples of such analogies: and the systematic writers have supposed that they had exhausted the comparisons. Yet a single language, the Chilian, has by itself more affinities with the languages of Europe, than all those mentioned by Vater and others, put together! The foreign or transatlantic affinities of American languages, vary from 10 to 70 per cent, according to the nations. If we suppose that there are 400 languages in America, and as many in the eastern hemisphere, and each to have about 2000 roots or essential words only; while the mean affinities are only 25 per cent: we shall find as many as 200,000 affinities! out of America, in every American language; and in all the 400, as many as 80 millions! instead of the paltry reckoning of 1000 or so. All this is susceptible of mathematical proofs, and shall be unfolded gradually in these pages.

The theory about the common exclusive grammatical structure of all the American languages, is equally erroneous and based upon partial facts. Instead of all the American languages being polysynthetic by amalgamating words, we find in America many mixt forms, and even the pure monosylabic: while the amalgamation of words prevails more or less in Europe and Africa; chiefly in the Bask, Italian dialects, Greek, Berber and other Atlantic dialects, the Negro languages, those of Caffraria, the Sanscrit and all the derived languages.

It had been asserted that no American language was monosylabic: yet Balbi states that the Guarani and Maya are such; Nasera has lately proved the same of the Othomi. Thus we have at least 3 such American groups of languages. But there are more; nay many American languages have monosylabic roots, even among the most amalgamated groups.

The most obvious grammatical classification of American languages, has escaped the acuteness of philologists. I find it in the epithetic structure, or relative position of ideas. Under this view all the languages arrange themselves in three great classes or groups. 1. Regular, 2. Resupinate, 3. Mixt.

1. _The Regular_ is the most simple and natural form: where the roots or nouns are prefixed, and the adjuncts or adjectives, expressing epithetes or qualities follow or are added. This group includes in the Eastern Continent 1. All the Semetic languages, Arabic, Hebrew, &c. 2. All the Atlantic and Egyptian languages. 3. All the Celtic and Cantabrian languages. 4. All the Polynesian and Malay languages. 5. The Bhotiya and many languages of Thibet. 6. Most of the Negro languages. 7. Yakut of Siberia, &c.

In America this group includes my groups 1. Innuit or Uski. 2. Ongwi. 3. Capaha. 4. Chactah. 5. All the languages related thereto in North-west America, the Kaluchi, Mandan, &c. 6. All the Guarani languages of South America, and perhaps many others, Mayna, Mobima, &c.

2. _The Resupinate or Reflexed Group_: where the roots or nouns substantive are reversed, following the adjective or epithetes, which are prefixed. This second mode of uniting ideas prevails 1. In all the languages of China and Tartary. 2. In all the Teutonic languages German, Swede, English. 3. In most of the Thracian, Illyrian, Greek and Slavonic languages. 4. In all the Turkish languages of Turan, Bokhara, Turkey. 5. The Newari of Imalaya. 6. The Qua or Hottentot of South Africa.

In America, it is the most prevailing form, found in my groups 1. Linni or Linapis. 2. Otali or Cheroki. 3. In all the Mexican and Othomi languages. 4. Chontal. 5. Skereh or Pani and Shoshoni, of North America,—and in South America. 6. Chili. 7. Yarura. 8. Mbaya and probably many more: although hardly indicated by the philologists.

3. _Mixt Form_, which employs or adopts more or less the two former modes; although there is always a prevailing form, that indicates the original mode of uniting ideas. This mixt form appears 1. In the Sanscrit and all derived languages. 2. In the Zend and Persian languages of Iran. 3. In the Pelagic and Italic languages, the Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, Greek. 4. The Japanese, &c.

While in America it is found 1. In the Aruac languages. 2. The Muyzca. 3. The Peruvian languages, &c. of South America, and in North America. 4. The Atalan. 5. Mizteca. 6. Opata, and probably some others.

This comparative classification of languages, will greatly help future investigations. It will show the improbability of the two opposite modes of annexing ideas having been entertained, by the same people at any time; while the mixt form evinces amalgamations of ancient nations. We have thus acquired another clue to trace primitive connections, another available mean to pursue the human steps on earth.

9. _Religions and Mythologies._ The human opinions on the past and future form every where ample themes of thoughts and actions. From revelations, inspirations, oracles, wisdom and priestcraft comingled, have arisen all the worships, and rites, dogmas and creeds, swaying the human mind, through hope or fear, love or hatred. The history of religious ideas, is in fact the history of civilization, since they have sprung together in social men. Nearly all the religions of Asia (which from hence have spread throughout the earth along with mankind) were found in America: except the modern creeds. But the traces of Judaism and Budhism were very faint and local. Mahometism was unknown, Braminism hardly known. Christianity or some of its rites are traced to Yucatan only, and may arise from other sources. The most prevailing worships were the primitive Sabeism, Solar worship, Polytheism, Dualism or Manicheism, Shamanism or worship of Spirits, Idolatry, and Fetichism or animal worship. We find throughout America many modifications of these creeds: with several complex mythologies, more or less analogous to eastern dogmas.

The investigation of these American religions affords not only an insight into the ancient civilization, but many proofs of ancient communications with Asia or Africa. Throughout North America the Dualism, mythologies and fabulous traditions point to a connexion with Tartary. In Florida, Mexico and Yucatan, begin to appear the Solar worship, and a cruel idolatry foreign to it. This Solar worship appears in a purer form in North America, as far as Peru. While in the Antilles, Guyana, Brazil and Chili, prevailed several worships of heavenly and terrestial spirits; somewhat akin to the primitive idolatry of Africa, Europe, Iran, India, China and Polynesia.

American religions admitted, like many others, of Priests, oracles, temples, shrines, pilgrimages, holy places, sacrifices, expiations, confessions, offerings, hymns, veneration for animals, men and stars. Idols painted or sculptured in wood, pottery, stone, metals, &c.; bloody rites by human sacrifices, scarifications, circumscision, &c. But none of these practices were general, some were quite local and circumscribed. Thus circumscision was only used by the Mayas of Yucatan, the Calchaquis of Tucuman, &c. Traces of a triple god or Indian Trimurti have been met from Ohio to Peru; but it was no where the prevailing religion. As the same idea was found among the Celts and Polynesians, it may have come by the east rather than Polynesia in the west.

10. _Civilization and Manners._ This completes the history of all nations. When their annals are well known, it becomes a very proper appendix to them; when they are not, it is a very needful supplement to the traditions, &c. But we must not make any history consist merely in such an account, as often done by negligent writers. The manners and customs of every people, are so fluctuating, liable to be changed, or improved by civilization, imitation, arts and sciences, &c.; that they cannot afford any test of connections. They are often borrowed, from neighbors or strangers, disused after awhile by whims or wars, invented to suit the climate and productions it may afford. We have positive proofs that the Europeans have since 1492 greatly modified the customs of all the tribes they conquered or visited. This must have happened formerly also, by other visits or communications. Yet, notwithstanding the uncertainty of the origin and duration of the primitive American customs, they must be studied, as one of the sources and objects of history.

We find, in ancient America, nearly all the forms of social civilization and manners of the east. But the Nomadic life with camels, oxen and sheep, was unknown, as well as those animals. The American cattle or lamas, &c. of South America, hogs of Coriana, dogs and rabbits of Mexico, deers of Florida, buffalos of Taos, were kept by sedentary civilized tribes. The Nomadic wandering tribes of America were chiefly hunters and fishermen: scattered around the agricultural nations, spreading from Canada to Chili.

All the kinds of governments were known in America: Theocracy, despotism, monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy. But the most prevailing were theocracy among the civilized nations, oligarchy among the barbarous nations: with two peculiar modifications, of double kings as among Arabs, civil and military; and chiefs of families or tribes, as among all primitive nations. Queens were known to but few tribes, although the female line was often hereditary. Written laws and codes were known to the Tol-tecas, Mexicans, Mayans, Muyzcas, Panos, Peruvians, &c. Oral laws were elsewhere preserved by priests or magistrates.

Polygamy prevailed among some tribes or castes, but was not universal. The 4 castes of Indians are distinctly found in nearly all the civilized nations, often modified into priests, nobles, vassals and slaves. The arts of music, medicine, smithery, painting, sculpture, architecture, agriculture, pottery, &c., were well known to nearly all. The sciences of geometry, geography, botany, astronomy, &c., were cultivated from Mexico to Peru, even taught in schools and colleges; with the arts, the laws, the rites, and history of the country.

Marsden has well distinguished several degrees of civilization in Asia. If no American nation had reached the Greeks and Romans, or our modern polished and improved civilization; it is not extraordinary. But the Peruvians, Muyzcas, Tol-tecas, Mexicans, Talascas, &c., were nearly equal to the Chinese, Egyptians and Hindus in civilization; not far removed from the European civilization of the 15th century: nay, in some things superior. The second degree of American civilization found in Chili, Florida, Cumana, the Antilles, Popayan, the Linapis, Omaguas &c. was equal to that of the Arabs, Malays, Celts, Cantabrians, Pelagians, &c. While the third degree found in all the barbarous nations, Innuit or Esquimaux, Shoshonis, Caribs, Brazilians, &c. was not worse than what we find among the Fins, Laplanders, Tartars, Sames, Negroes and Hottentots.

Individual property in land was almost unknown in America; but feodal and tribal property well understood. Common property of tribes and villages over their territories, was the most usual tenure, modified by wars, conquests, tributes. Individual property existed only for tenements and personal property. Warfares, marriages and funerals were very different in every nation. The weapons of war were clubs, arrows, darts, lances, axes, Macana swords, Sarbacanes or blowing tubes, slings, nooses, thronged balls, &c. as elsewhere. There was a peculiar diplomacy, with heralds, envoys, messengers. Shields, towers, forts, walls, ditches, were used for defence, besides _Estopils_ a peculiar quilted armor. Flags, banners, and standards were known. The calumets, leaves or green feathers, council fires, and white flags were emblems of peace. Alliances and confederations existed from earliest times, also the adoption of tribes and prisoners. Slavery was hardly known; but vassalage much extended over conquered tribes.

Dresses and ornaments were quite various. Seal skins used by the Innuit. Deer skins and furs by the tribes of North America. In tropical America many tribes went nearly naked, with a mere apron or pagne of cotton or grass cloth. But the civilized nations were decently clothed with cotton shirts and feather mantles. The _Poncho_ is a true American dress known from Mexico to Chili, hardly known out of America except Polynesia.(4)

Women wore long pagnes or gowns. They made cloths of lama wool in Peru; of cotton, hemp, nettles, grass, feathers &c. there and elsewhere; either twisted, plaited or woven. The Peruvians and Chilians had a peculiar loom and plough. Cotton looms were used in Florida, Mexico, and all over South America, even by the Caribs to make hamacs or hanging beds. Among some nations women had the most labor to perform; yet even the men assumed hunting, making canoes, huts, weapons, &c. More civilized tribes worked together in the fields: The proud and warlike employed vassals or slaves.

Painting the body or face, was usual among many nations, but not general. It was useful against heat and flies, or was used to inspire love or terror. Ornaments to the head, ears, nose, lips, wrists, legs, &c., were more or less adopted by men and women. The hair was usually worn long; but many tribes cut it in various ways, as a crown or tuft. The beard even when scanty was deemed unbecoming by many tribes, and totally eradicated; but some tribes wore beards. The head was often left uncovered; but hats were worn in the N. W. and Central America, turbans in Paria and Florida, feather crowns in the tropics, _Lautas_ or diadem-bands in Peru and the Andes. Shoes and gloves were unknown; but sandals, leggings, leather clods, and mocassins or slippers of various substances, commonly used; with singular snow shoes of bark in winter by northern tribes.

Chapter III.

AMERICAN CATACLYSMS _or Considerations on the Periods of American Geogony, Ontogony, Floods, and ancient population &c. of both Americas._

History does not merely consist in accumulating facts: these constitute the annals of empires; but the real philosophical history has a nobler aim. It seeks results, teaches lessons of wisdom, brands with infamy the foes of mankind, and inspires veneration for the benefactors of the human race. It presents examples worthy to be followed, and records the crimes to be avoided.

The several departments of history that are distinguished as biography, civil and ecclesiastical annals, moral and physical surveys of mankind, comparative philology, archeology, chronology, mythology, &c. All combine to instruct and amuse, to record the past and present, and to lead to better future actions, an improved social order. The nations often forget the wise lessons of time and experience; but they are continually recalled to memory and view by the historians, who seek the truth, and setting aside the sway of human passions or national prejudices, present the faithful mirror of history to the eyes of posterity.

Such is my aim. American history has been so much despised or perverted, that few lessons, have been drawn from it: yet it affords ample scope for reflection, study and admiration. Nearly one half of the habitable globe, during all the past ages, cannot fail to offer a variety of subjects, to draw the attention of philosophy, wisdom and philanthropy: that mutual benevolence of mankind, which ought ever to be felt; but is so often discarded or forgotten through the contrary tendencies of pride, lust, cupidity, and all the baneful passions.

The connections of historical facts with all the sciences, afford another useful theme; that may vastly increase our comparative knowledge: much of it has arisen, besides observation, from accurate comparison, analysis and generalization, which combine to give results, enlarging the field and sphere of human knowledge, in all its branches.

If we go back, by the help of geology, to the most remote periods of existence and life in this hemisphere, we find it like the remainder of the globe, immersed under the Ocean. There, in the depths of the briny waves, the actual rocks now supporting the dry soil, were formed and matured: superposed and intermingled by aquatic and volcanic phenomena and cataclysms, if not by superadded aerial depositions. Then were formed the primitive strata of America, ere life had begun to vivify the waters; then were cast the Porphyries, Granites, Shales, Basalts, and other primitive or volcanic rocks, that are now chiefly found in Boreal and Western America, the Andes, Mts. Parima, and Brazil, the Austral and Boreal Islands, Hayti and the Antilles. This was the first period of terrestial Creation.

After this period of unknown length, began the epocha of aquatic life; when the breath of GOD, moving on the waters, gave life and motion to organized aquatic beings; 1. Plants and Fucites, 2. Spongites and Alcyonites, 3. Polyps and corals, 4. Worms and radials, 5. Sluggs and shells, 6. Mollusca and Cephalopodes, 7. Trilobites and Crustacites.... All incipient vegetating beings, or inferior unbony animals, gradually evolved and born in the waters of the Sea.... Followed by the more perfect vertebrated aquatic animals, 8. Fishes and Sharks, 9. Snakes and reptiles; lastly, 10. Seals and whales. Some of which require shallow water, to dwell and breed.... This was the second period of American Creation: _Aquatic life_.

The third epocha is that of the destruction of aquatic life, by cataclysms and depositions, submarine volcanic cavernous eruptions or other causes, throwing suddenly in a soft, sandy or muddy state, the substances that have formed the secondary mountains or strata of psamites, argillites, calcarites, carbonites, &c., that overwhelmed the aquatic tribes in their way; which becoming therein entombed as living medals of this globe, declare to us these mighty successive cataclysms or floods of sand, clay, lime and coal; now met in vast regions, the Alleghanies and Central North America, Florida and the Bahama Islands; the hills and plains of Brazil, Chili, East Peru, and Central Maragnon.... This was the second period of terrestrial formation in America, the third of successive eventful periods.

The fourth must have been the rise of the land above the waters, if not already partly begun. The epocha of terrestrial upheaving and distortion of strata, by an awful inward force; either volcanic, or calorific, or of growing crystalization; forming mountains and islands, raising them above the Ocean; to become the nucleus of future Continents. The American hemisphere had then probably two great islands, in the North and South, with many smaller islands between them, in the tropical sea: the Alleghany and Atlantis forming two others in the east, and many others studding the two polar regions. The insulated mountain tract between Lake Nicaragua and the long valley of Choco, must then have formed another Island of the Antilles. Guyana or Parima was also another large island: while Brazil was a vast peninsula attached to the Andes. I have endeavored to express this first configuration of America in my two maps of North and South America; when the Ocean was yet about 500 feet higher than it is actually. Whether this cataclysm was contemporaneous throughout, or by successive throes must be ascertained by Geogony.... This was the fourth period of terrestrial events in this hemisphere; but the first of terrestrial separate existence.

When the dry land had appeared, the creative power of GOD exerted upon the virgin mould of the mountains, drew forth into life, Plants and Flowers, Trees and Palms; with the successive terrestrial animals, 1. Worms and Slugs, 2. Insects and Spiders, 3. Snakes and Reptiles, 4. Birds and Fowls, 5. Beasts and Bats. Streams began to flow, valleys were excavated in the soft or yielding strata by heavy tides and powerful streams: then the fishes of the sea ascended the rivers, and filled the streams and lakes. A few shell and other aquatic animals sent also colonies into fresh waters.... This was the fifth period of terrestrial events; that of terrestrial life.

Meantime the land was continuing to rise, or the ocean to sink; the dry soil was extending: land volcanoes began to appear in the Andes and elsewhere, overwhelming some living tribes. The carbonic volcanoes had new paroxysms, slaty mud involved terrestrial plants and trees in successive eruptions: the clay mud or colored sand was forming tertiary strata on the shores, involving sea animals, shells, reptiles and fishes.... This was the sixth period of terrestrial events, that of land volcanoes.

After all these; mankind was created by GOD, and appeared as lord of the earth, and the complement of living creation.... This may be deemed another Period, if we like; although it was but the complement of the terrestrial living productions, begun in the 5th, and probably proceeding in the 6th. Where the first man or men appeared and dwelt, is unknown or very dubious. Asia is commonly deemed the first dwelling of mankind, and Central Asia or Thibet the cradle of our race: although China, India, Arabia, Syria, Ceylon, &c., claim the same honor. But few authors have placed this cradle in America, and even then not for the _Adamites_. Yet America had some inhabitants before the flood, if we are to believe the concurrent traditions of many American nations; who keep the memory of it, and point to their refuges.(5)

Of these American Anti-diluvians we know little or nothing: their traces are few and uncertain. It would be otherwise if we could identify them with the anti-diluvian _Atlantes_, or find their diluvial remains. The skeletons found in Guadaloupe, and on R. Santas of Brazil, by Captain Elliott (described by Meigs in the transactions of American philosophical society 1827) in tuffa with shells, may have been buried there; like the mummies of many American caves. Some of the American mounds have appeared anti-diluvian; but the fact is not well proved. The subterranean antiquities are also of an equivocal character. The town of log houses lately found in Georgia, buried under golden clysmian soil, cannot be so remote; the soil instead of diluvial, may be a deep alluvial. All the facts on these remote times, shall be hereafter collected, presented and examined carefully.

Thus, has been presented by geological results, a rapid sketch of the American periods, to the birth of mankind. These 6 periods or _yums_, are well ascertained as to succession; but their duration is unknown: and each of them includes several subordinate periods; which it is not needful to investigate in these outlines. The works on geology may be consulted if required. These 6 _yums_ or great periods do not answer exactly to the 6 _yums_ or manifestations of the mosaic cosmogony, since geogony begins only with the 3d, ending with the 5th.

Such oriental accounts are always deserving our attention, and susceptible of the deepest philosophical commentary, as they mainly agree with all the detected facts. But there are at least 3 accounts of the creation or cosmogony in the _Sepher_ or Hebrew Bible. 1. That of Job. 2. Of Moses in chapter 2d of Genesis from verse 4 to 25; in both, no _yums_, days nor periods are mentioned. 3. The usual mosaic account of chapter 1st. ending only at ch. 2, v. 3. Even in this usual account more than 7 periods can be found, including heaven, earth and men.

These are the real Mosaic periods, with his own names, very different from the subsequent Jewish names, in various dialects.

1. PERIOD OF TIME OR YUM. BRA-SHITH Real beginning or Real Supreme Being producing ALEIM the Angels, SHMIM Heavens, and ARTZ Earth.

2. YUM. THEU-UBEU Chaos, and THEUM Abyss, with RUH Spirit of God.

3. YUM. AUR Essence of celestial light or Ether. First divine manifestation of _Mshe_ or Moses.

4. YUM. RKIO Expanse or sky, diversion of aerial and celestial fluids. 2d.

5. YUM. Sea and dry land, upheaving of land over the waters, or subsiding of the ocean. Vegetation. 3d.

6. YUM. Sun and Moon appearance by a change in the misty atmosphere? with XUXBIM stars? 4th.

7. YUM. Fishes and Fowls, &c. 5th.

8. YUM. Beasts and cattle, with ADM mankind or human emanation, our Adam, ZXR male, and NKBE female. 6th.

9. YUM. _Shbioi_ seventh manifestation, _Aleim_ became IEUE Jehovah, the living-self-with-self, the supreme or powerful self.

10. YUM. AD emanation, our mist.

11. YUM. ADM into GN or _Gan._ our Eden.

12. YUM. OTZ Growth, of lives with good and evil.

13. YUM. NER 4 flowing emanations or streams.

14. YUM. ASHE Intellectual man-mate, called afterwards EUA living existence, our Eve.—Self-with-life.

All these periods should require long comments, and discussions, rather physical than historical. It is by no means certain that the sun and moon are implied in the 6th yum. The text says a couple of MARTH Centralities EMAUR-GDL and EMAUR-KTN Self-great-ether greatest and lesser. Some have seen here the solar and lunar dynasties of Asia. The XUX-BIM might be the XRUBIM of later times. The real sun and moon may belong to the _yum_ of AUR. The stars, according to Job, were in existence before the foundation of the earth, and our astronomy teaches this implicitly.

In this cosmogony, the heavenly creation takes 4 periods. The grass grows by light before the sun had appeared through the misty atmosphere, and the fishes come after the land and herbs, at the same period with fowls. Our actual geology does not confirm this last fact; but a proper explanation of the biblic words would confirm the truth.(6)

Many still consider AISH intellectual man as the human race, previous to _Adam_, father of the Adamites; but the concurrent proofs are very slender: nor is their posterity known; unless _Nahash_ or the snakes, _Elohim_ or the sons of God, the _Rephains_ or giants, and the _Nephilim_ or apostates, be considered as such. Indications of races of men different from the Adamites may be collected both in the Bible, and in all the ancient annals of China, India, Iran, &c.; but no positive connected account has ever been made out as yet.

The _Nahash_, _Hareth_ or _Satan_ of the Bible, is identic with the _Nagas_ (snakes) of the Hindus, the _Zabul_ and _Dives_, (devils) of Iran, evidently men, and foes of the Adamites: they are also the U-long or antidiluvian dragons of China. In America the satanic notions will be seen in the respective account of religions. They often assume in this hemisphere the appearance of volcanic ideas, or of a vampire malignant being. But the nations of the Linapi group connect the ideas of devils, snakes and foes, all called _Ako_ or _N’akho_ very similar with _Nahash_ and _Nagas_. They assert that they were created by the Evil Spirit, were always foes of real men; that they caused the flood, and went afterwards to America before the Strait of Behring was formed.—_See_ Linapi Traditions.

The ALEIM, _Elohim_ or _Egregori_ or angels of the Hebrew were instead sons of God, and Moses ascribes to them the creation of the earth; while Job ascribes it to _Eloah_, the real God. Herder has said that we shall never understand well the mosaic history, until we ascertain who were these _Elohim_ and _Cherubim_(7) dwelling on earth. My dissertation on anti-diluvian history may perhaps help to clear the matter; meantime it may be stated that they appear to be the HO-LO of anti-diluvian Chinese history, or LO-LO of their post-diluvian annals. Perhaps also the celestial emperors beginning the history of China: the _Alorus_ first dynasty of Assyria before the flood: the _Ang_-ELOS and P’EL of the Pelagians. Also the H’ELLO (old men) of the Egyptians, the PELEI (old men or ancestors) of the ancient Illyrians, the LAHI or ancient Thibetans.

They may be the ELEI or ancient Persians, the _Peris_ or _Pelis_ of Iran, ancient beneficent beings. The Arabs and all the Semetic nation have preserved that name for God, in EL, _Allah_, _Baal_, or made of it their universal article _El_, _Al_, meaning HE or _the Being_: whence also the Pelagic and Italic articles IL, L, LI, &c., the Spanish EL. By the frequent usual change of L into R, we have ER root found in many languages for men: forming the _Heros_ of Greece, sons of God; the HER or lords of the Germanic tribes, the _Seres_ of Thibet or ancient Chinese, _Ergaz_ men of the African Atlantes. _Erk_ man in Turkish or Turan Atlantes, akin to _Egregori_!

In America these similar indications are widely spread, and among the most ancient nations. EL means man in Tolteca and Mexican, OL is old and _Yollo_ a spirit or angel. EL is son and tribe in Hayti, _Elohi_ is land and spirit in Tzuluki. _Yol_ means _man_ in the Atakapa language of the Cado or Nachez group. _Pele_ means the same in Lulé of South America; but _Peli_ is soul in Chilian, which approximate to _Peleg_ and _Lelex_, ancient Pelagian tribes. The connections with TEL, TAL, TOL, pervade the whole of ancient America, and lead to assimilate with the TOL-tecas and TALAS, American Atlantes, the Tulans or Asiatic Atlantes, the _Auto-Toles_ or African Atlantes. These lead to the giants of both hemispheres or ancient men of renown. But the subject must be postponed, and will be found resumed in the history of Austral and Central America, where these atlantes and giants are found.

Returning from this digression; we may resume the geological periods of America previous to mankind, in the six successive epochas, already mentioned.

1. Period. Primitive, aquatic and before life.

2. Period of aquatic organic life.

3. Period of aquatic cataclysms.

4. Period of the dry land or islands.

5. Period of terrestrial life.

6. Period of terrestrial volcanoes.

After which begins the human period, till the flood. The question whether man or men appeared together, or before or after, in both hemispheres; must be left undecided. Some writers have even placed _Eden_ the GN of Moses in America and the Hesperidian Islands of old; but as the Imalaya mountains, valleys and plains, are higher than the Andes, older in geological series, and more suitable for human life, not being volcanic: it is extremely probable that they were the cradle of mankind, rather than America.

Yet men reached America before the flood, and were here at this eventful period. But we are ignorant of the precise way they came, and how they reached this land which was then only a group of large islands, unless North America was united to Asia by Behring Strait, as very probable. The clearest traditions point to the east, Africa and Europe then united at the Strait of Gibraltar, and the Island Atlantis as a stepping place. The Mexican traditions point to Asia, by two different opposite quarters, the east and the north west. The Uskis or Innuit nations are late comers by the north west. The Linapi nations, although earlier, came the same way, and over the ice of Behring Strait, after its disruption. The Hongwis came the same way, although they boast of being Autochtones, as did the Greeks, which we know in both instances to be false.

The Nachez nations say they came from the east. The Olmecas or earliest people of Anahuac point that way also; although both speak of an American flood. The Haytians and Cubans were also of eastern origin, like all the Aruac nations; but remembered the flood and parceling of the islands. The Carib nations appear postdiluvians and the last come in South America; yet the Tamanacs one of the group speak of an American flood. The Guarani call themselves eastern men, and came from Africa after the flood. It is in South America, the Andes of Chili, Peru, &c., that a positive memory was found of several floods and cataclysms, in or near the Andes, which gave refuge to several tribes. Yet it is there also that the most obvious philological affinities are found with North Africa and the shores of the Mediteranean; while many invasions of foreign later nations are recorded, &c.

All these antidiluvian notions, and accounts of the American flood, will be carefully collected and given. This will form the first period of human history in America, extending to 2262 years at least, according to the computation of the 70; the most plausible of all. The Tol-tecas reckon nearly the same time between their period of creation and their main flood: or with trifling differences, less than the various terms of Josephus and others; but various other calculations are found in Anahuac.

Such a period of 23 centuries was certainly sufficient to people America, and fill it. The Cainites or Cabils have been deemed parents of the Atlantes and Africans. They were skilful, powerful and wicked, inventing agriculture and arts, building cities &c.: while the Sethites invented astronomy, letters and dwelt in tents. If the American Atlantes were antidiluvian, they must have sprung from the Atlantes Cainites, KIN of Moses.

In 1170 years after Adam, the _Egregori_ angels of Mt. Ima, came to Mt. Hermon, in 20 tribes, under their king Semi-Azar, and uniting with the Cainites, gave birth to the _Rephaim_, _Nephilim_ and _Eliud_, tribes of Giants, tyrants and Canibals: who made war on the angels and men. They are said in the Bible to have gone to _Sheol_ (the lower world or South America) with their king Belial: where they were drowned by the flood. _See Universal History._

The Giants dwelt in _Talo-tolo_, the world _Tolo_ of the Hindus, where we find the _Tol_-tecas (Tol-people:) therefore America: called also _Atala_ and once sunk in the waves; like the Atlantis of the Greek, whose Atlantes were also Giants or powerful men. The Egregori have been deemed the Titans of the Greeks, and Atlas was a Titan. Although Gigantic Nations existed in America, the Talegas, Toltecas, Caribs, Chilians, &c. being often such: the term Giant must always be understood to refer to powerful perverse men. The names of _Rephaim_ and _Nephilim_ appear unknown in America, being mere Hebrew epithets for giants and apostates.

During this primitive period, geological and physical changes probably proceeded in America. The plains gradually appeared, but full of marshes, lakes and wide streams, muddy volcanoes, snakes, crocodiles and obnoxious animals. Which must have assailed mankind and greatly impeded their settlements. Although the lives of men were perhaps longer than now; yet it is probable that the long lives of the Patriarchs of this period, allude to as many Dynasties or gradual nations sprung from each other. In this I agree entirely with the learned Hebrew scholar D’Olivet.(8)

Huge beasts and carnivorous animals, dwelt then on earth; in America several species of mastodons, elephants, oxen, megatherium, megalonyx, hyenas, bears, &c., which prowled in plains and caves. The temperature of the earth was higher; little clothing was needed. Men were at war with beasts, and among themselves. Violence predominated in many regions, and Noah one of the _M’nus_ of the Hindus, a patriarch of the Adamites, a prophet according to the Arabs, went over the earth to preach against this corruption. Not being attended to, he foresaw that a great calamity would befall for these iniquities, and he prepared himself a THBE or refuge in Central Asia: where he collected his relations and friends. Some say they were 72, our translations of Moses reduces them to 8; but his 3 sons of Noah, are evidently as many tribes. The THBE of Noah contained therefore 4 tribes, including his own, and many individuals, besides a multitude of animals.

I do not give now the history of this flood. Before it can be given accurately, we must collect all the scattered traditions about it, compare them, and omitting all fabulous and obviously impossible details, form a narrative of the whole facts. The notions and traditions of the Americans are very various, as they do not always point to this flood. We find them asserting that men were saved in mountains, or caves, on rafts or boats. Few, if any, allude to an ark, but all to a refuge as THBE. Those of Mexico and Peru, are contradictory, alluding to several floods, and particularly the subsequent of Peleg.

The most explicit traditions on that score are those of the Linapi nations; although the tribes vary the tale, the holy song of the real Linapi tribe, alludes clearly to a great flood in Asia: when their nations at least was partly saved in _Tula_ (the turtle land) in Central Asia, by the help of a goddess, and Noah or _Nana-bush_. The men were then called _Linowi_ and _Linapi_: two other races of men were saved, the _Owini_ (beings) and the _Tulapewi_, turtlings or atlantes. Besides these foes the _Maskanako_ (strong snakes), _Nakowa_ (dark snakes), and the _Amangamek_, monsters of the sea; who caused this dire flood. These notions are strikingly similar to the Asiatic and Hindu fables about the turtle saving mankind at the flood. _Nana-bush_ is evidently Noah, his name means _Noah-Noah-hare_, or the _Great Noah_ and _Hare_.

The Chinese accounts of the first flood, do not allude to any ark, but mountains were the refuge of mankind. The Hindu account is very near the mosaic; but has no boat, and many persons were saved. The accounts of the Assyrians, Arabs, Tartars, Egyptians, Lybians, Greeks, Celts, Polynesians, &c. are all different. The mosaic account was borrowed from some ancient source now forgotten. It is said that Noah himself wrote an account of the flood, and preserved ancient records. Divesting the mosaic account from the supernatural and the impossible, we obtain the real tradition of a great aquatic cataclysm. Either a sinking of some lands or an irruption of the ocean, attended with volcanic floods of waters from the Caspian sea (as Humboldt says,) heavy rains, and a change of climate: which overflew the earth or most of it; except some _Thebas_, refuges in mountains, _swimming_ over the waters, as it were: there some men and tribes, many animals, trees and plants were preserved: to spread afterwards again over the earth.

After this flood, America was left pretty much as it is now, except that the shores were higher yet, many flat plains inundated and full of marshes. The Antilles yet united in larger islands and perhaps with Cumana. The Strait of Choco nearly filled up: and diluvial soil, gravel, sand, boulders and organic remains scattered over the land, the hills, plains and caves. Many fierce beasts had disappeared, vegetation had been destroyed wherever the flood went; but the buried seeds, and those of mountain plants gradually grew or spread again. The terrestrial animals and birds saved in the mountains, spread themselves again over the earth. Mankind in despair at the disaster, kept for a long while on mountains, and did not occupy again the desolated hills and plains, until many years after.

The Chinese account of this flood, state positively that it was attended with a change in the length of the year, formerly of only 360 days, a change in the seasons, an increase of cold, rain and winds: compelling men to dress in skins and mats. Also that the wild beasts and snakes driven to the mountains, became very troublesome, men being compelled to defend themselves against their attacks.

The Rev. Gleig in his late history of the Bible, where like Hales and Russel, he has at last adopted the computation of the Septuagint and Josephus, reckons 5411 years from Adam to our era, the oriental Christians reckon 5508 years, the Toltecas, reckoned 5099 years. Gleig puts Noah’s flood 2259 years after Adam. The Chinese and Hindu chronology are partly fabulous; but may be reconciled to these periods; as well as to the second cataclysm of the earth; that of Peleg according to the Biblists. The only knowledge the Bible gives about it, is that the earth was split, broken or divided, in the time of the patriarch or dynasty of Peleg; who lived or lasted from 531 to 870 after Noah’s flood. But David has sung this cataclysm in the 18th psalm. The Chinese account brings this second flood to the year 2296 before Christ, or 858 years after the former. The Hindu account concealed in many fables agrees also with this period. But it appears to have lasted longer, and many years. It is evidently in date the mistaken Hebrew flood, blending both into one, and annihilating the place between them. The Chinese account distinctly speaks of both, the first was under _Yunti_, the second under _Yao_, and 42 emperors are mentioned between the two floods.

In America, it is often difficult to distinguish which is meant by the various imperfect traditions: yet in Mexico and Peru, there are at least two cataclysms mentioned by the annals or traditions. Also among some northern tribes. The Linapi annals or songs allude to the second, which broke by volcanoes the _Lusasaki_ (burnt land) and separated America or _Akomenaki_ (snake island) from Asia to Behring strait.

Thus the real antidiluvian periods lasted nearly 3000 years from Adam’s epocha, or 3212 by oriental computation. The interval between Adam and Noah ought to be called the Adamic period, that between Noah and Peleg’s floods the Noahic period. It was at this last convulsion that the earth took its actual form. The Straits of Gibraltar, Calais, Messina, Hellespont, Bosphorus, Babelmandel, Behring, Malaca, Sunda, &c., were then formed. The Atlantis Island in the Atlantic Ocean and the Island Lanca in the Indian Ocean were sunk. The Azores, Madeira, Canaries, &c. are fragments of the Atlantis: Ceylon, Madagascar, &c. the fragments of Lanca.(9)

In America, the Boreal islands may have been broken, like the British islands of Europe. Some suppose that they might once join together with Iceland. The Antilles were split in the actual form—Behring Strait divided America from Asia. The Polynesia lands were broken or sunk. The lowlands of Chili, Peru, and the Atlantic shores were inundated and then partly left dry by huge volcanic tides. This cataclysm was not a mere aquatic flood; but a violent volcanic flood, having at least three great focusses, 1. in the North Atlantic Ocean, 2. In the Indian Ocean, 3. In Polynesia or the Pacific Ocean. In China all the lowlands were overflowed and partly overwhelmed. The great Islands of Java and Sumatra were formed; which formerly were united with Asia and several islands in the vicinity, under the remembered name of _Sunda_ land.

If mankind had not reached America before Noah, it must surely have reached it before this second cataclysm. The Atlantes were in the neighbourhood and bold navigators, as well as the primitive Pelagians, Lybians, Cantabrians; bearing then various peculiar names, mostly traced in America. Twenty American nations have distinct remembrance of this splitting of American lands and islands; local or partial floods, less general and disastrous than the former.

This cataclysm was not so deadly to animals and vegetables as the former; but it must have destroyed them in several sunken islands: and have added second clysmian strata to the soil of the plains: with many volcanic productions, chiefly clay and sand, limy and marshy muds. The memorials, annals and traditions of the American nations are very scanty on this period; difficult to be distinguished from the Adamic: while the monuments to be referred to it, are not easily traced, nor distinct in form. The _Linapi_ tribes had not yet reached America, and dwelt in Asia; but by their account the Snake tribes _Akowi_ went to America in that period, led by _Nakopowa_ (the Snake priest); it is even hinted that they caused this cataclysm or at least the separation of Asia and America, at _Lusasaki_ (burnt land), in order to escape their foes, the _Elowi-chik_ (hunters) of the _Linnapewi_, the original manly people.

Chapter IV.

GENERAL VIEW _of the Ancient and Modern Annals of Both Americas.—european Colonies, Modern Fate Of Nations, Late Physical Changes, &c._

After these floods begin the primitive annals of mankind in America as elsewhere; but still scanty, obscure and involved in fables, by personifications of tribes, metamorphoses into animals, plants, fruits or even stones and mountains. The origin of nearly all the nations is neither clear nor well ascertained, by their mere annals; but the collateral proofs of the languages facilitate the enquiry. Those who have the most positive facts of primitive times are the Ongwis, Linapis, Toltecas, Tainos, Peruvians, &c.; but commonly destitute of dates and correct details. We ought not to be surprised at this, since even in Asia (except in China,) we possess nothing but fragments on those times; while the most polished nations of oldest times, the Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Arabs, Jews, &c. have involved their early histories in fables, mythologies and false dates.

However, whatever might be the early origin of the American nations, it may be collected from all, that in the ancient periods; they were few in number and in population; principally confined to some peculiar seats of civilization: such as the regions of Apalacha, Hayti, Anahuac, Oaxaca, Chiapa, Maya, Cundina, Oronoc, and Peru. We have positive proofs of early empires and splendid monumental cities at Teoti-huacan, Otolum, Coban &c. in Central America; and in South America at Chimu, Tiahuanaco &c.; while cities and monuments of a lesser order or size, were scattered afterwards from the Lakes of Canada and the River Ohio, to Chili and Brazil: probably through the dispersion and colonization of these early empires or states.(10)

After they had filled the most fruitful or suitable regions, carrying with them agriculture, domestic animals, religion, laws and various graphic systems: they were invaded by tribes less civilized; but more warlike; principally in North America, and in Guyana, Brazil &c. Many revolutions must have followed these contests: some of which are recorded in the Apalachian region of the United States, in the Mexican table land, in Hayti &c. and by the Muyzcas, Peruvians &c. further south: while in Guyana and Brazil the annals are lacking, and the traces of these conflicts but faint; yet certified by some traditions and the new tribes introduced.

The solar worship prevailed among the most civilized nations and empires: that of Naguals or Zemis (spirits) among those of the second degree. The least civilized nations had either adopted the Dualism or a mixed religion: while the barbarous tribes knew only a kind of _Tao_ religion as in China,(11) or a fetichism, venerating one or many objects of nature. But these four main worships, were subject to many fluctuations, and diversities: they had often degenerated into a Polytheism, and idolatry, with various rites, and some cruel customs, human sacrifices &c. A kind of priesthood was almost universal and formed a peculiar caste in many states. The legislators and rulers had often been priests, and became pontifs as well as kings, in Cuzco, Chimu, Tunca, Mayapan, Cholula, Manazicas &c.

During a period of 2 or 3000 years after the floods, the earth had undergone many changes by volcanoes, earthquakes and the subsiding of the sea. Many valleys were drained, their lakes lessened or disappeared; the shores of the Atlantic from New Jersey to Florida and Yucatan, and from La Plata to Magellania, as well as those of Peru, Chili &c. were increased by the gradual retreat of the sea. The great plains of the Mississippi, Oronoc, Maranon and Parana were also formed or drained of their swamps and morasses.

It is at the end of this epocha, equal to the antecedent antidiluvian period, that the real or certain history of the Americans begins with many details and dates; both in the north and south. It was then that the empires of the Toltecas, Utatlans, Mexicans, Apalachis, Mayapans, Incas &c. were established on the ruins of many anterior states. We obtain by the annals preserved or recovered of many such nations, a tolerable view of this part of their history, and even an insight into earlier times, when similar revolutions must have happened. If many states or nations rose and fell in this hemisphere, unknown to the other: it was a common fate with others in Africa, Polynesia and even in Asia. But we may hope to rescue their names if not their deeds, from total oblivion, by seeking their monuments, and the fragments of human tribes they left to mourn their fate.

In this period some American nations rose to a degree of splendor and civilization, with knowledge of arts and sciences, little inferior to Greeks and Romans; and superior to the European nations of the middle ages, even down to 1492: quite equal at least to that of the Egyptians and Hindus. The American graphic systems of Apalacha, Anahuac, Maya, Otolum, Peru; although peculiar, were quite sufficient to transmit knowledge in books, schools and inscriptions. This high civilization was not merely confined to Mexico and Peru, as often erroneously supposed; but was scattered from the Apalachis and Nachez of Florida to the Chilians south of Peru, filling the whole intermediate space.

Although war and slavery prevailed in many parts, they were modified by the usage of adoption for individuals and whole tribes, mutual alliances, confederacies &c.: while slavery was changed into a feodal vassalage. The feodal system and the castes prevailed in all civilized nations of America, as in India and Asia from earliest time.

Instead of perpetual wars the ancient annals of America, present us with the soothing view of wise legislators, who gave civilization and happiness to millions for ages, and conquered by deeds of peace. Such were most of the conquests of the Bohitos, Bochicas, Incas, Quetzals, Cuculcans, Tzomes, Maponos, Tamanends, Tarenyos &c. worthy lawgivers of the Antilles, Muyzcas, Peru, Anahuac, Mayas, Guaranis, Manazicas, Linapis, and Ongwis. I shall revive, with pleasure, their memory and deeds, dwelling on them with more pleasure than on the cruel war leaders.

To them the Americans were indebted for their policy, diplomacy, alliances, agriculture and knowledge, with the peculiar happy mode of holding the land in common or feodal tenure, with property in tenements and moveables. To them may be traced the introduction of useful plants, the maize, cotton, quinoa, patatas, yams, manioc, banana, gourds, beans, and 100 other cultivated plants and fruits. The Mexicans had even botanic gardens and pleasure grounds before the modern Europeans. The universities of Cuzco, Tunca, Tezcuco, Cholula, Mayapan, Utatlan &c. were founded earlier than the European universities by such benefactors of mankind; and 112 domestic animals had been tamed in America, while only 80 in the eastern hemisphere. Of which must be reckoned.(12)

In the W. In the Eastern. Hemisphere. Quadrupeds 33 kinds only 25 kns. Birds 32 25 Reptiles 15 10 Fishes 12 10 Insects 8 4 Shells and worms 12 6

The modern history of America since 1492 presents a multitude of events with regular dates: but the historians of these later times instead of dwelling upon the native nations, appear to notice them merely _en passant_! while relating at length the discoveries, conquests and wars of the European adventurers and colonists.

It is not thus that we are to notice them; but as equal nations. Now that after four ages, these colonies are also become independent nations, and begin to nurse American feelings, we ought to feel for them, and reveal the truth. It is not number nor dominion alone that constitute a people; but a peculiar language, and peculiar manners. The modern history of the Araucanians, Guaranis, Caribs, and North American tribes, is the best known by peculiar fragments; but similar fragments may be collected on many other tribes.

Meantime Columbus came, another leader of colonists to America; since many had come before him: and with him came the ferocious gold hunters of Castille; who in their greedy search after golden wealth, trampled under foot, both religion and humanity. They enslaved, tortured and destroyed millions of human beings from Hayti to Mexico and Peru; but were checked at last in Florida, Chili, Tologalpa, Santa Marta &c. They overthrew many flourishing states, and erected over them a slavish colonial fabric, soon after sunk in sloth and ignorance.(13)

The dissentions of Mexico and Peru were the cause of their ruin and subjugation by the Spaniards; but the Floridans, Apaches Tayronas, Poyays, Caribs, Mbayas, Chilians &c. withstood forever their utmost efforts, and never were conquered. The happy states of Yucatan, Guatimala, Tunca, Hayti, Cuba &c. fell by their unwarlike and peaceful friendly disposition; being cruelly betrayed and desolated.

In the east, Brazil was occupied by the Portuguese, where a bastard tribe of Mamalucos were born; who sought for slaves and gold, from Guayana to Paraguay, and destroyed many tribes. After these unworthy freebooters, came the rabble of pirates and buccaneers to revenge American wrongs, upon the Spaniards and Portuguese by deeds of cruelty. Thus was America flooded with blood, and groaning in tears for nearly three centuries. But even these horrible deeds were not the only ones to deplore. Not satisfied with the weak labor of American slaves; another continent was overrun, to supply stronger hands, and Africa was made to contribute millions of slaves to swell American population, or sink there to premature death under the lashing scourge of cruel tasks.

The English, French, and Dutch wishing to partake of the American spoils, went in search of wealth all over the shores of this continent. Not satisfied with mere trading colonies, as in India, they sent stationary colonies of slaves and planters, to occupy some weak points, with or without the consent of the nations. The Dutch settled in Brazil, Surinam, Curazao and New York. The French in Canada, Louisiana, Florida, Hayti, the Carib Islands, Cayenne and Brazil; but have gradually lost all those colonies, except Cayenne and a few Carib Ids.

The English nation, more daring, steady and lucky, occupied with their auxiliaries, the Scotch and Irish, some points of the Atlantic shores, many Carib Islands &c.: by conquest they acquired New York, Canada, Demerary, Jamaica and some smaller islands. Since, whenever the Europeans were at war among themselves, they carried their quarrels over the ocean, and endeavored to destroy each other. Laterly among them arose in North America the holy flame of freedom and independence, which has been travelling and spreading throughout the continent, ever since.

But among these contending colonies and slaving plantations, how were the owners of the soil, treated and dealt with? Alas! seldom with justice—Popes and kings gave away lands and rights, which did not belong to them; nobles and merchants, availing themselves of this doubtful right, bought with trifling presents the good will of some tribes, or drove them away by force. Thus were settled most of the American colonies; except a few, attempted in a spirit of religion and peace.

The worthy Las-Casas, immortal be his name! gave the example of reducing unsubdued tribes to peaceful allies, by words and deeds of peace and piety, and Tezutlan thus reduced by him was called Verapaz. When the Spanish and Portuguese freebooters were sunk in wealth and sloth; they found it very convenient to employ the Jesuits and other monks to subdue for them whole tribes and nations, by this easy mode. In North America, Roger Williams and William Penn, blessed be their names! settled colonies without strife, and by mere good will towards the owners of the soil. But every where the foes or successors of these missionaries of peace, deceived or betrayed the allies they had made. Unjust wars were the natural consequence, in which the rightful party, did not often prevail, being overpowered by strength and cunning.

Meantime the independent period opens a new era for America. In 1776 the United States of North America confederate and become free. Seventeen years afterwards the black slaves of Hayti unfurl the standard of broken chains. Between 1808 and 1820 the whole of Spanish America shakes the weak power of Spain. In 1822 the whole of Brazil becomes an American empire. Slavery is abolished in all the Spanish states, only retained in the colonies of Cuba and Porto Rico. In 1834 England emancipates the slaves of all her colonies. Slavery was gradually excluded from many states of N. America, at early periods; but others from Virginia to Louisiana are tenacious of these unholy and dangerous bonds.

Now, the native American tribes within the claimed territories of these new independent nations, are under a sort of pupilage, and often oppressed: although no longer slaves from Canada to Chili. Brazil alone admits of indescriminate slavery, and will rue the consequence at some future period, like those colonies and states that delay wiser measures. Meanwhile at the two ends of America, in Canada and the United States, as in Buenos Ayres, a new kind of oppression has appeared. Land stealing and compulsory sales! unhallowed means to increase wealth, nearly as guilty as the precious Spanish gold hunting.

The United States which ought to set the wisest example, of justice and clemency, towards reduced tribes, diminished by vices taught instead of virtues, are doing the reverse. They refuse to amalgamate the native tribes, admit them to equal rights, as in the new Spanish States; but compel them to submit to laws not understood, in a language untaught, or disqualify them for witnesses. They compel them to remove, emigrate, disperse, sell their lands and homes, at one tenth of the value; and this is called fair dealing!

Notwithstanding that the European states or colonies, occupy or claim, nearly the whole of both Americas; yet there are many vast regions as yet unsettled by them, and where dwell or wander several free tribes, particularly in the Arctic wilds, in Oregon, California, Texas, the Missouri plains, New Mexico, Sinaloa, Tologalpa, in N. America—and in S. America in the vast plains and deserts of the Oronoko, Maranon, Brazil, Chaco, Chili and Magellania. The most prominent of these modern tribes are the Uskis or Esquimaux, the Dinnis, the Chopunish, Dacotas or Sioux, Panis or Skerés, Washas or Ozages, Chactas, Tzulukis, Apaches or Cumanches, Poyays or Musquitos &c. In South America, the Aruacs, Caribs, Omaguas, Maynas, Aymaras, Puris, Mbayas, Araucas, Talahets or Pampas &c. All divided into many lesser tribes and independent communities.

Instead of endeavoring to civilize them by fair means and deeds of peace, many continue to be exasperated by unfair dealings, greedy traders, intemperance, and above all by killing their game, and stealing their lands. Some missions are established from Groenland to Chili; but the intercourse of the majority is with traders, trappers, land-hunters or squatters, and the military of the frontiers: from whom they can imbibe no very favorable idea of their oppressors.

How is this to end? Is it really intended to grasp the whole continent, and make these fragments of nations, aliens on their own soil? or to annihilate them at last? Beware! men of bad faith, or greedy of landed wealth! There is a God in heaven, and he deals justly with nations as with men. He may find means to punish you, if you continue to violate the sacred laws of mankind. The desperate tribes, either become stronger by concentration, or acquired knowledge, may fall on you at last, like so many Goths and Vandals, Huns and Tartars, to revenge their wrongs, and desolate this land wrongly acquired. Or among you will arise Agrarian sects, that will deprive your children of this landed property so unjustly acquired and held.

Be wise and just in time, if cupidity does not blind you, imitate the happy policy of Mexico, Guatimala, Peru &c. that has admitted the natives to equality and citizenship. Do better still, allow them to form peculiar states and territories, preserving their languages and laws, and admit these states into your confederacies. Then you will be secure, and both live in peace, increasing and multiplying as time rolls on. There is land enough for all, and to spare. What need has a man of 1000 acres of land; while 100 can support a large family! in the cold climates, and 10 acres in the fruitful tropical climates, where thrive the banana and the sugar cane. If hunters require a large wilderness to sustain their mode of life, greedy worshippers of mammon wish for 10,000 acres to hold waste for speculation! or to fill with plantations of slaves and tenants, in order to become lords of future generations; but the real wise and active men, the props of society, are content with moderate, secure estates, which they may improve and beautify into smiling gardens.

The modern intercourse of the two hemispheres has been productive of much more misery, than mutual benefit. The Americans have received the European cattle without imparting to Europe, their equally useful Peruvian cattle; they have received the horse, and often adopted him as a friend, to become Tartars and Arabs by his help, so as to retaliate mischief on the cruel Spaniards. Some European fruits and grains have been received and cultivated: while all have been introduced into the colonies. Woolen cloth, blankets, iron and copper kettles, tools, trinkets, guns and gunpowder, with the liquid poisons of the still, have been spread by trade. These last with horses and guns, have been the chief deadly weapons of Europe against America.(14)

In return, Europe has received gold, silver and precious furs: pearls and diamonds, cochineel, annato, indigo, die woods, vicunia wool, cacao, vanilla, gum elastic and many other useful or medical articles. Maize, returning east whence it came; with tobacco, a loathsome weed of heathen growth and rites. Human knowledge has been increased, and trade greatly enlarged; the tame cavias, with turkeys and musky-ducks have been transmitted. Thus Europe has been the gainer, and was for a long while jealous of these treasures.(15)

Under the pious guise of hypocrisy, the heavenly religion of Jesus, was offered or forced upon many American nations, by the same men, who were behaving worse than heathens, worshipping gold and mammon with the earth itself, bathed in human blood and tears; introducing slavery and over toils; exulting in deeds of cruelty, revenge, wanton lust, cupidity and avarice; with all the other anti-christian vices. If Mexico had ghastly idols and cruel rites; Hayti, Cuba, Bogota, Peru &c. had not; but peaceful, harmless worships: to which was substituted the papal worships of other idols, saints and monks. The pure undefiled religion of love and peace to all mankind, was seldom introduced in America, even by the Jesuits—except by the heavenly Las-Casas, the friendly quakers, the humane moravians, and a few other christian missionaries. All the sects of christianity have now spread to America, and even some arisen there; nay, the Jews have reached this continent, with a few Mahometans, Hindus, Chinese, Budhists &c. Thus all the religions of the earth are now found in this hemisphere, by the tolerance and freedom of opinions lately proclaimed in many parts.

Great has been the influence of 3 or 4 ages, on the American tribes, that have been enslaved, or in frequent communication with the nations of Europe—not in religion alone; but in dress, manners, knowledge, civilization and pursuits. The alphabetical writing has been introduced among them, the Tzulukis have invented a syllabic alphabet; some arts, and the pastoral nomadic life have been adopted. In the boreal regions, the English and Russians employ the hunting tribes as providers of furs. In South America the native tribes are often skillful fishermen or traders.

Upon the whole, the late prospects of America are cheering. Many independent nations have sprung, which deem themselves Americans, and love their homes. A general spirit of tolerance and peace is spreading, the true religion of the heart better understood; and a disposition is evincing to render tardy justice to the oppressed tribes, and the poor slaves. Those who wish oppression and intolerance to be perpetuated, are not many in this continent, at present; they will be fewer still in half a century or the year 1892.

Thus, mankind lives in fluctuations of mind and manners. A few ages have been sufficient to produce these mighty changes. Meanwhile, nature although changing slower, is still at work on the soil of this hemisphere. Since 1492 volcanoes have appeared and disappeared, the sea shores have receded, the lakes are falling, the streams are lessening, the mountains