An Advanced English Grammar with Exercises
George Lyman Kittredge and Frank Edgar Farley
An Advanced English Grammar
With Exercises
By
George Lyman Kittredge
Gurney Professor Of English Literature In Harvard University
And
Frank Edgar Farley
Professor Of English Literature In Wesleyan University
Ginn And Company
BOSTON · NEW YORK · CHICAGO · LONDON ATLANTA · DALLAS · COLUMBUS · SAN FRANCISCO
COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY GEORGE LYMAN KITTREDGE AND FRANK EDGAR FARLEY ENTERED AT STATIONERS’ HALL ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 424.2
The Athenæum Press
Ginn And Company · Proprietors · Boston · U.S.A.
Preface
This grammar is intended for students who have already received instruction in the rudiments. Still, every such textbook must begin at the beginning. Part One, therefore, which occupies pp. 1–24, gives a succinct treatment of the Parts of Speech in the Sentence and of their substitutes, the Phrase and the Clause, concluding with a Summary of Definitions. Thus it clears the way for what follows, and may be utilized as a review, if the student needs to refresh his memory.
Part Two deals specifically and fully with Inflections and Syntax (pp. 25–182). It includes also a chapter on the use of subordinate clauses as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs (pp. 157–162), as well as a chapter in which such clauses are logically classified in accordance with their particular offices in the expression of thought (pp. 163–182).
Part Three (pp. 183–226) develops the subject of Analysis in its natural order, first explaining how sentences are put together, and then illustrating the process by which they may be resolved into their constituent parts. Modifiers and Complements are classified, and the so-called Independent Elements are discussed. There is added a special chapter on Combinations of Clauses, in which the grammatical and logical relations of coördination and subordination are set forth, and their functions in the effective use of language are considered. This portion of the book, it is hoped, will be especially useful to students of English composition.
The Appendix furnishes lists of verbs, tables of conjugation, rules for capitals and marks of punctuation, a summary of important rules of syntax, and a brief history of the English language.
The Exercises (pp. 227–290) are collected at the end of the text, so as not to break continuity. References prefixed to each, as well as page-numbers in the Table of Contents, enable the teacher to attach them, at will, to the topics which they concern. The passages for parsing, analysis, etc., have been carefully selected from a wide range of eminent British and American writers. The name of the author is often appended to the quotation, when the passage is particularly noteworthy either for its contents or its form. In most cases, however, this has not been done; but the student may always feel confident that he is occupying himself with specimens of English as actually composed by distinguished authors. The constructive exercises call particular attention to those matters in which error is especially prevalent.
An advanced grammar must aim to be serviceable in two ways. It should afford the means for continuous and systematic study of the subject or of any part of it; and it should also be useful for reference in connection with the study of composition and of literature. With this latter end in view, many notes and observations have been included, in smaller type, to show the nature and development of the various forms and constructions, and to point out differences between the usage of to-day and that which the student observes in Shakspere and other English classics. The fulness of the index makes it easy to find anything that the volume contains.
In accordance with the desire of many teachers, certain topics of importance have been treated with unusual thoroughness. Among these may be mentioned the uses of _shall_ and _will_, _should_ and _would_, the infinitive and the infinitive clause, conditional sentences, indirect discourse, and the combination of clauses in sentences of different kinds.
The authors are indebted to several teachers for suggestions and criticism. Particular acknowledgment is due to Mr. Theodore C. Mitchill, of the Jamaica High School, New York, and Mr. C. L. Hooper, of the Chicago Normal School.
Contents
[_The numbers in the first column refer to the pages of the text; those in the second column to the pages of the Exercises._]
Introduction
Text Exercises
Language and Grammar xi Grammar and Usage xv Summary of General Principles xvii
English Grammar
Part One--The Parts Of Speech In The Sentence
The Sentence--Subject and Predicate 1 227 Kinds of Sentences 2 227 The Eight Parts of Speech Defined 3 228 The Same Word as Different Parts of Speech 9 229 Infinitives and Participles 11 229 Comparative Importance of the Parts of Speech 13 Simple and Complete Subject and Predicate 14 230 Compound Subject and Predicate 15 230 Substitutes for the Parts of Speech 16 231 Phrases--Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverbial 16 231 Clauses--Independent and Subordinate 16 232 Compound and Complex Sentences 17 232 Compound Complex Sentences 18 232 Clauses as Parts of Speech 19 232 Summary of Definitions 21
Part Two--Inflection And Syntax
Chapter I--Inflection
Inflection in General 25 Summary of Inflections 26
Chapter II--Nouns
Classification--Common Nouns and Proper Nouns 27 233 Special Classes--Abstract, Collective, Compound 29 234 Inflection of Nouns 30 235 Gender 31 235 Number 34 235 Person 39 236 Case 40 237 Nominative Case 41 237 Possessive Case 43 238 Objective Case 47 239 Parsing of Nouns 54 240
Chapter III--Pronouns
Personal Pronouns 55 241 Gender and Number of Personal Pronouns 56 241 Case of Personal Pronouns 57 241 The Self-Pronouns (Compound Personal Pronouns) 60 241 Adjective Pronouns--Demonstratives 62 243 Adjective Pronouns--Indefinites 64 243 Relative Pronouns 66 244 The Relative Pronoun _What_ 71 246 Compound Relative Pronouns 72 246 Interrogative Pronouns 73 246 Parsing of Pronouns 74 247
Chapter IV--Adjectives
Classification of Adjectives 75 248 Adjectives--the Articles 77 248 Comparison of Adjectives 79 249 Irregular Comparison 81 249
Chapter V--Adverbs
Classification of Adverbs 83 250 Relative and Interrogative Adverbs 86 251 Comparison of Adverbs 87 252 Use of the Comparative and Superlative 88 252 Numerals--Adjectives, Nouns, Adverbs 89 252
Chapter VI--Verbs
Classification of Verbs 91 253 Auxiliary Verbs--Verb-Phrases 91 253 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 92 253 Copulative Verbs 93 253 Inflection of Verbs 94 254 Tense of Verbs 94 254 Present and Past Tenses 94 254 Weak (Regular) and Strong (Irregular) Verbs 95 254 Person and Number 97 254 The Personal Endings 97 254 Conjugation of the Present and the Past 98 254 Special Rules of Number and Person 100 254 The Future Tense--_Shall_ and _Will_ 102 256 Complete or Compound Tenses 106 258 Voice--Active and Passive 107 258 Conjugation of the Six Tenses 108 258 Use of the Passive Voice 110 258 Progressive Verb-Phrases 113 260 Emphatic Verb-Phrases 114 260 Mood of Verbs 115 261 Indicative Mood 115 261 Imperative Mood 116 261 Subjunctive Mood--Forms 118 261 Uses of the Subjunctive 119 261 Potential Verb-Phrases (Modal Auxiliaries) 124 262 Special Rules for _Should_ and _Would_ 127 264 The Infinitive 132 266 The Infinitive as a Noun 134 266 The Infinitive as a Modifier 136 266 The Infinitive Clause 137 267 Participles--Forms and Constructions 140 268 Nominative Absolute 144 269 Verbal Nouns in _-ing_ (Participial Nouns) 145 269
Chapter VII--Prepositions
List of Prepositions 148 270 Special Uses of Prepositions 149 270
Chapter VIII--Conjunctions
Coördinate (or Coördinating) Conjunctions 151 270 Subordinate (or Subordinating) Conjunctions 153 270 Correlative Conjunctions 153 270
Chapter IX--Interjections
Interjections 155 272 Exclamatory Expressions 155 272
Chapter X--Clauses As Parts Of Speech
Clauses as Parts of Speech 157 272 Adjective Clauses 157 272 Adverbial Clauses 158 272 Noun (or Substantive) Clauses 159 272
Chapter XI--The Meanings Of Subordinate Clauses
Clauses of Place and Time 163 272 Causal Clauses 164 272 Concessive Clauses 164 272 Clauses of Purpose and Result 166 274 Conditional Sentences 167 274 Forms of Conditions 169 274 Present and Past Conditions 170 274 Future Conditions 171 274 Clauses of Comparison 173 275 Indirect Discourse 173 277 _Shall_ and _Will_, _Should_ and _Would_ in Indirect Discourse 177 278 Indirect Questions 179 280 _Shall_ and _Will_, _Should_ and _Would_ in Indirect Questions 182 281
Part Three--Analysis
Chapter I--The Structure Of Sentences
Analysis--the Elements 183 282 Simple Sentences 184 282 Compound Sentences 185 282 Complex Sentences 186 282 Compound and Complex Clauses 186 287 Compound Complex Sentences 187 283
Chapter II--Analysis Of Sentences
Simple Sentences 188 283 Compound Sentences 188 283 Complex Sentences 189 283 Compound Complex Sentences 190 283
Chapter III--Modifiers
Modifiers in General 191 283 Modifiers of the Subject 192 283 Modifiers of the Predicate 196 284
Chapter IV--Complements
Use of Complements 200 285 The Direct Object 201 285 The Predicate Objective 202 285 The Predicate Nominative 202 285 The Predicate Adjective 203 285
Chapter V--Modifiers Of Complements And Of Modifiers
Modifiers of Complements 205 286 Modifiers of Other Modifiers 207 286
Chapter VI--Independent Elements
Four Kinds of Independent Elements 209 286 Parenthetical Expressions 209 286
Chapter VII--Combinations Of Clauses
General Principles 210 287 Coördination and Subordination 210 287 Clauses--Simple, Compound, Complex 211 287 Complex Sentences 186 282 Simple Sentences with Compound Subject or Predicate 212 287 Compound and Complex Sentences 213 287 Compound Complex Sentences 215 287 Varieties of the Complex Sentence 216 287 Special Complications in Complex Sentences 220 288 Special Complications in Compound Complex Sentences 222 288
Chapter VIII--Elliptical Sentences
Ellipsis in Clauses and Sentences 224 288 Varieties of Ellipsis 225 288 Examples of Elliptical Constructions 226 288
Exercises
Exercises on Part One 227 Exercises on Part Two 233 Exercises on Part Three 282
Appendix
Lists of Verbs 291 Conjugation of the Verb _to be_ 300 Conjugation of the Verb _to strike_ 301 Use of Capital Letters 305 Rules of Punctuation 306 Rules of Syntax 311 The English Language 316
Index 321
Introduction
Language And Grammar
I. The Nature Of Language
Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written words.
The English word _language_ comes (through the French _langue_) from the Latin _lingua_, “the tongue.” But the tongue is not the only organ used in speaking. The lips, the teeth, the roof of the mouth, the soft palate (or uvula), the nose, and the vocal chords all help to produce the sounds of which language consists. These various organs make up one delicate and complicated piece of mechanism upon which the breath of the speaker acts like that of a musician upon a clarinet or other wind instrument.
Spoken language, then, is composed of a great variety of sounds made with the vocal organs. A word may consist of one sound (as _Ah!_ or _O_ or _I_), but most words consist of two or more different sounds (as _go_, _see_, _try_, _finish_). Long or short, however, a word is merely a sign made to express thought.
Thought may be imperfectly expressed by signs made with the head, the hands, etc. Thus, if I grasp a person’s arm and point to a dog, he may understand me to ask, “Do you see that dog?” And his nod in reply may stand for “Yes, I see him.” But any dialogue carried on in this way must be both fragmentary and uncertain. To express our thoughts fully, freely, and accurately, we must use words,--that is, signs made with the voice. Such voice-signs have had meanings associated with them by custom or tradition, so that their sense is at once understood by all. Their advantage is twofold: they are far more numerous and varied than other signs; and the meanings attached to them are much more definite than those of nods and gestures.
Written words are signs made with the pen to represent and recall to the mind the spoken words (or voice-signs). Written language (that is, composition) must, of necessity, be somewhat fuller than spoken language, as well as more formal and exact. For the reader’s understanding is not assisted by the tones of the voice, the changing expressions of the face, and the lively gestures, which help to make spoken language intelligible.
Most words are the signs of definite ideas. Thus, _Charles_, _captain_, _cat_, _mouse_, _bread_, _stone_, _cup_, _ink_, call up images or pictures of persons or things; _strike_, _dive_, _climb_, _dismount_, express particular kinds of action; _green_, _blue_, _careless_, _rocky_, _triangular_, _muscular_, enable us to describe objects with accuracy. Even general terms like _goodness_, _truth_, _courage_, _cowardice_, _generosity_, have sufficiently precise meanings, for they name qualities, or traits of character, with which everybody is familiar.
By the use of such words, even when not combined in groups, we can express our thoughts much more satisfactorily than by mere gestures. The utterance of the single word “Charles!” may signify: “Hullo, Charles! are you here? I am surprised to see you.” “Bread!” may suggest to the hearer: “Give me bread! I am very hungry.” “Courage!” may be almost equivalent to, “Don’t be down-hearted! Your troubles will soon be over.”
Language, however, is not confined to the utterance of single words. To express our thoughts we must put words together,--we must combine them into groups; and such groups have settled meanings (just as words have), established (like the meanings of single words) by the customs or habits of the particular language that we are speaking or writing. Further, these groups are not thrown together haphazard. We must construct them in accordance with certain fixed rules. Otherwise we shall fail to express ourselves clearly and acceptably, and we may even succeed in saying the opposite of what we mean.
In constructing these groups (which we call +phrases+, +clauses+, and +sentences+) we have the aid of a large number of short words like _and_, _if_, _by_, _to_, _in_, _is_, _was_, which are very different from the definite and picturesque words that we have just examined. They do not call up distinct images in the mind, and we should find it hard to define any of them. Yet their importance in the expression of thought is clear; for they serve to join other words together, and to show their relation to each other in those groups which make up connected speech.
Thus, “box heavy” conveys some meaning; but “_The_ box _is_ heavy” is a clear and definite statement. _The_ shows that some particular box is meant, and _is_ enables us to make an assertion about it. _And_, in “Charles and John are my brothers,” indicates that Charles and John are closely connected in my thought, and that what I say of one applies also to the other. _If_, in “If Charles comes, I shall be glad to see him,” connects two statements, and shows that one of them is a mere supposition (for Charles may or may not come).
In grouping words, our language has three different ways of indicating their relations: (1) the forms of the words themselves; (2) their order; (3) the use of little words like _and_, _if_, _is_, etc.
I. +Change of form.+ Words may change their form. Thus the word _boy_ becomes _boys_ when more than one is meant; _kill_ becomes _killed_ when past time is referred to; _was_ becomes _were_ when we are speaking of two or more persons or things; _fast_ becomes _faster_ when a higher degree of speed is indicated. Such change of form is called +inflection+, and the word is said to be +inflected+.
Inflection is an important means of showing the relations of words in connected speech. In “Henry’s racket weighs fourteen ounces,” the form _Henry’s_ shows at once the relation between Henry and the racket,--namely, that Henry owns or possesses it. The word _Henry_, then, may change its form to _Henry’s_ to indicate ownership or possession.
II. +Order of words.+ In “John struck Charles,” the way in which the words are arranged shows who it was that struck, and who received the blow. Change the order of words to “Charles struck John,” and the meaning is reversed. It is, then, the +order+ that shows the relation of _John_ to _struck_, and of _struck_ to _Charles_.
III. +Use of other words.+ Compare the two sentences:
The train _from_ Boston has just arrived.
The train _for_ Boston has just arrived.
Here _from_ and _for_ show the relation between the _train_ and _Boston_. “The Boston train” might mean either the train _from_ Boston or the train _for_ Boston. By using _from_ or _for_ we make the sense unmistakable.
Two matters, then, are of vital importance in language,--the forms of words, and the relations of words. The science which treats of these two matters is called +grammar+.
+Inflection is a change in the form of a word indicating some change in its meaning.+
+The relation in which a word stands to other words in the sentence is called its construction.+
+Grammar is the science which treats of the forms and the constructions of words.+
+Syntax is that department of grammar which treats of the constructions of words.+
Grammar, then, may be said to concern itself with two main subjects,--inflection and syntax.
English belongs to a family of languages--the Indo-European Family[1]--which is rich in forms of inflection. This richness may be seen in other members of the family,--such as Greek or Latin. The Latin word _homo_, “man,” for example, has eight different inflectional forms,--_homo_, “a man”; _hominis_, “of a man”; _homini_, “to a man,” and so on. Thus, in Latin, the grammatical construction of a word is, in general, shown by that particular inflectional ending (or termination) which it has in any particular sentence. In the Anglo-Saxon period,[2] English was likewise well furnished with such inflectional endings, though not so abundantly as Latin. Many of these, however, had disappeared by Chaucer’s time (1340–1400), and still others have since been lost, so that modern English is one of the least inflected of languages. Such losses are not to be lamented. By due attention to the order of words, and by using _of_, _to_, _for_, _from_, _in_, and the like, we can express all the relations denoted by the ancient inflections. The gain in simplicity is enormous.
II. Grammar And Usage
Since language is the expression of thought, the rules of grammar agree, in the main, with the laws of thought. In other words, grammar is usually logical,--that is, its rules accord, in general, with the principles of logic, which is the science of exact reasoning.
The rules of grammar, however, do not derive their authority from logic, but from good usage,--that is, from the customs or habits followed by educated speakers and writers. These customs, of course, differ among different nations, and every language has therefore its own stock of peculiar constructions or turns of expression. Such peculiarities are called +idioms+.
Thus, in English we say, “It is I”; but in French the idiom is “C’est moi,” which corresponds to “It is me.” Many careless speakers of English follow the French idiom in this particular, but their practice has not yet come to be the accepted usage. Hence, though “C’est moi” is correct in French, we must still regard “It is me” as ungrammatical in English. It would, however, become correct if it should ever be adopted by the great majority of educated persons.
Grammar does not enact laws for the conduct of speech. Its business is to ascertain and set forth those customs of language which have the sanction of good usage. If good usage changes, the rules of grammar must change. If two forms or constructions are in good use, the grammarian must admit them both. Occasionally, also, there is room for difference of opinion. These facts, however, do not lessen the authority of grammar in the case of any cultivated language. For in such a language usage is so well settled in almost every particular as to enable the grammarian to say positively what is right and what is wrong. Even in matters of divided usage, it is seldom difficult to determine which of two forms or constructions is preferred by careful writers.
Every language has two standards of usage,--the colloquial and the literary. By “colloquial language,” we mean the language of conversation; by “literary language,” that employed in literary composition. Everyday colloquial English admits many words, forms, phrases, and constructions that would be out of place in a dignified essay. On the other hand, it is an error in taste to be always “talking like a book.” Unpractised speakers and writers should, however, be conservative. They should avoid, even in informal talk, any word or expression that is of doubtful propriety. Only those who know what they are about, can venture to take liberties. It is quite possible to be correct without being stilted or affected.[3]
Every living language is constantly changing. Words, forms, and constructions become +obsolete+ (that is, go out of use) and others take their places. Consequently, one often notes in the older English classics, methods of expression which, though formerly correct, are ungrammatical now. Here a twofold caution is necessary. On the one hand, we must not criticise Shakspere or Chaucer for using the English of his own time; but, on the other hand, we must not try to defend our own errors by appealing to ancient usage.
Examples of constructions once in good use, but no longer admissible, are: “the best of the two” (for “the better of the two”); “the most unkindest cut of all”; “There’s two or three of us” (for _there are_); “I have forgot the map” (for _forgotten_); “Every one of these letters are in my name” (for _is_); “I think it be” (for _is_).
The language of poetry admits many old words, forms, and constructions that are no longer used in ordinary prose. These are called +archaisms+ (that is, ancient expressions). Among the commonest archaisms are _thou_, _ye_, _hath_, _thinkest_, _doth_. Such forms are also common in prose, in what is known as the +solemn style+, which is modelled, in great part, on the language of the Bible.[4]
In general, it should be remembered that the style which one uses should be appropriate,--that is, it should fit the occasion. A short story and a scientific exposition will differ in style; a familiar letter will naturally shun the formalities of business or legal correspondence. Good style is not a necessary result of grammatical correctness, but without such correctness it is, of course, impossible.
Summary Of General Principles
1. Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written words.
2. Words are the signs of ideas.
Spoken words are signs made with the vocal organs; written words are signs made with the pen to represent the spoken words.
The meanings of these signs are settled by custom or tradition in each language.
3. Most words are the signs of definite ideas: as,--_Charles_, _captain_, _cat_, _strike_, _dive_, _climb_, _triangular_, _careless_.
Other words, of less definite meaning, serve to connect the more definite words and to show their relations to each other in connected speech.
4. In the expression of thought, words are combined into groups called phrases, clauses, and sentences.
5. The relation in which a word stands to other words in the sentence is called its construction.
The construction of English words is shown in three ways: (1) by their form; (2) by their order; (3) by the use of other words like _to_, _from_, _is_, etc.
6. Inflection is a change in the form of a word indicating some change in its meaning: as,--_boy_, _boy’s_; _man_, _men_; _drink_, _drank_.
7. Grammar is the science which treats of the forms and the constructions of words.
Syntax is that department of grammar which treats of the constructions of words.
8. The rules of grammar derive their authority from good usage,--that is, from the customs or habits followed by educated speakers and writers.
English Grammar
Part One
The Parts Of Speech In The Sentence
+Summary.+ The Sentence: Subject and Predicate; Kinds of Sentences.--Use of words in the Sentence: the Eight Parts of Speech; Infinitives and Participles.--Comparative Importance of the Parts of Speech in the Sentence: the Subject Noun (or Simple Subject); the Predicate Verb (or Simple Predicate); Compound Subject and Predicate.--Substitutes for the Parts of Speech: Phrases; Clauses; Compound and Complex Sentences.
The Sentence
+1.+ +A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought.+
Fire burns.
Wolves howl.
Rain is falling.
Charles is courageous.
Patient effort removes mountains.
London is the largest city in the world.
A man who respects himself should never condescend to use slovenly language.
Some of these sentences are short, expressing a very simple thought; others are comparatively long, because the thought is more complicated and therefore requires more words for its expression. But every one of them, whether short or long, is complete in itself. It comes to a definite end, and is followed by a full pause.
+2.+ Every sentence, whether short or long, consists of two parts,--a +subject+ and a +predicate+.
+The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that is spoken of; the predicate is that which is said of the subject.+
Thus, in the first example in § 1, the subject is _fire_ and the predicate is _burns_. In the third, the subject is _rain_; the predicate, _is falling_. In the last, the subject is _a man who respects himself_; the predicate, _should never condescend to use slovenly language_.
Either the subject or the predicate may consist of a single word or of a number of words. But neither the subject by itself nor the predicate by itself, however extended, is a sentence. The mere mention of a thing (_fire_) does not express a complete thought. Neither does a mere assertion (_burns_), if we neglect to mention the person or thing about which the assertion is made. Thus it appears that both a subject and a predicate are necessary to make a sentence.
+3.+ +Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.+
1. +A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact.+
Dickens wrote “David Copperfield.”
The army approached the city.
2. +An interrogative sentence asks a question.+
Who is that officer?
Does Arthur Moore live here?
3. +An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request.+
Open the window.
Pronounce the vowels more distinctly.
4. +An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief, or some other emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry.+
How calm the sea is!
What a noise the engine makes!
A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence is also +exclamatory+, if it is uttered in an intense or excited tone of voice.
+4.+ In imperative sentences, the subject (_thou_ or _you_) is almost always omitted, because it is +understood+ by both speaker and hearer without being expressed.
Such omitted words, which are present (_in idea_) to the minds of both speaker and hearer, are said to be “understood.” Thus, in “Open the window,” the subject is “_you_ (understood).” If expressed, the subject would be emphatic: as,--“_You_ open the window.”
+5.+ The subject of a sentence commonly precedes the predicate, but sometimes the predicate precedes.
Here comes Tom.
Next came Edward.
Over went the carriage.
A sentence in which the predicate precedes the subject is said to be in the +inverted order+. This order is especially common in interrogative sentences.
Where is your boat?
When was your last birthday?
Whither wander you?--SHAKSPERE.
The Parts Of Speech
+6.+ If we examine the words in any sentence, we observe that they have different tasks or duties to perform in the expression of thought.
Savage beasts roamed through the forest.
In this sentence, _beasts_ and _forest_ are the +names+ of objects; _roamed_ +asserts action+, telling us what the beasts _did_; _savage_ +describes+ the beasts; _through_ shows the +relation+ in thought between _forest_ and _roamed_; _the_ +limits+ the meaning of _forest_, showing that one particular forest is meant. Thus each of these words has its +special office+ (or +function+) +in the sentence+.
+7.+ +In accordance with their use in the sentence, words are divided into eight classes called parts of speech,--namely, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.+
I. Nouns
+8.+ +A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.+
EXAMPLES: Lincoln, William, Elizabeth, sister, engineer, Chicago, island, shelf, star, window, happiness, anger, sidewalk, courage, loss, song.
II. Pronouns
+9.+ +A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a person, place, or thing without naming it.+
In “_I_ am ready,” the pronoun _I_ is a convenient substitute for the speaker’s name. In “_You_ have forgotten _your_ umbrella,” the pronouns _you_ and _your_ designate the person to whom one is speaking.
Other pronouns are: _he_, _his_, _him_; _she_, _hers_, _her_; _it_, _its_; _this_, _that_; _who_, _whose_, _whom_, _which_; _myself_, _yourself_, _himself_, _themselves_.
Since pronouns stand for nouns, they enable us to talk about a person, place, or thing without constantly repeating the name.
+10.+ +Nouns and pronouns are called substantives.+
Nouns and pronouns are very similar in their use. The difference between them is merely that the noun designates a person, place, or thing by +naming+ it, and that the pronoun +designates+, but does not +name+. Hence it is convenient to have a general term (+substantive+) to include both these parts of speech.
+11.+ +The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.+
_Frank_ introduced the boys to _his_ father. [_Frank_ is the antecedent of the pronoun _his_.]
_Eleanor_ is visiting _her_ aunt.
The _book_ has lost _its_ cover.
The _trappers_ sat round _their_ camp fire.
_Washington_ and _Franklin_ served _their_ country in different ways. [_Their_ has two antecedents, connected by _and_.]
III. Adjectives
+12.+ +An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive.+[5]
This it usually does by indicating some quality.
+An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.+
+13.+ An adjective limits a substantive by restricting the range of its meaning.
The noun _box_, for example, includes a great variety of objects. If we say _wooden_ box, we exclude boxes of metal, of paper, etc. If we use a second adjective (_small_) and a third (_square_), we limit the size and the shape of the box.
Most adjectives (like _wooden_, _square_, and _small_) +describe+ as well as limit. Such words are called +descriptive adjectives+.
We may, however, limit the noun _box_ to a single specimen by means of the adjective _this_ or _that_ or _the_, which does not +describe+, but simply points out, or +designates+. Such words are called +definitive adjectives+.[6]
IV. Verbs
+14.+ +A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action) concerning a person, place, or thing.+[7]
The wind _blows_.
The horses _ran_.
The fire _blazed_.
Her jewels _sparkled_.
Tom _climbed_ a tree.
The dynamite _exploded_.
Some verbs express state or condition rather than action.
The treaty still _exists_.
The book _lies_ on the table.
Near the church _stood_ an elm.
My aunt _suffers_ much from headache.
+15.+ A group of words may be needed, instead of a single verb, to make an assertion.
+A group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.+
You _will see_.
The tree _has fallen_.
We _might have invited_ her.
Our driver _has been discharged_.
+16.+ Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called +auxiliary+ (that is, “aiding”) +verbs+, because they help other verbs to express action or state of some particular kind.
Thus, in “You _will see_,” the auxiliary verb _will_ helps _see_ to express +future+ action; in “We _might have invited_ her,” the auxiliaries _might_ and _have_ help _invited_ to express action that was +possible+ in past time.
The auxiliary verbs are _is_ (_are_, _was_, _were_, etc.), _may_, _can_, _must_, _might_, _shall_, _will_, _could_, _would_, _should_, _have_, _had_, _do_, _did_. Their forms and uses will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.
The auxiliary verb regularly comes first in a verb-phrase, and may be separated from the rest of it by some other word or words.
Where _was_ Washington _born_?
The boat _was_ slowly but steadily _approaching_.
+17.+ _Is_ (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate describe or define the subject.
1. Gold _is_ a metal.
2. Charles _is_ my friend’s name.
3. The colors of this butterfly _are_ brilliant.
4. Iron _becomes_ red in the fire.
5. Our condition _seemed_ desperate.
6. Bertram _proved_ a good friend in this emergency.
7. My soul _grows_ sad with troubles.--SHAKSPERE.
In the first sentence, the verb _is_ not only +makes an assertion+, but it also +connects+ the rest of the predicate (_a metal_) with the subject (_gold_) in such a way that _a metal_ serves as a description or definition of _gold_.
In sentences 4–7, _becomes_, _seemed_, _proved_, and _grows_ are similarly used.
In such sentences _is_ and other verbs that are used for the same purpose are called +copulative+ (that is, “joining”) +verbs+.
_Is_ in this use is often called the +copula+, that is, the “joiner” or “link.”
The forms of the verb _is_ are very irregular. Among the commonest are: _am_, _is_, _are_, _was_, _were_, and the verb-phrases _has been_, _have been_, _had been_, _shall be_, _will be_.[8]
V. Adverbs
+18.+ +An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.+
To +modify+ a word is to change or affect its meaning in some way. Thus in “The river fell _rapidly_,” the adverb _rapidly_ modifies the verb _fell_ by showing _how_ the falling took place. In “I am _never_ late,” “This is _absolutely_ true,” “That is _too_ bad,” the italicized words are adverbs modifying adjectives; in “He came _very_ often,” “He spoke _almost_ hopefully,” “The river fell _too_ rapidly,” they are adverbs modifying other adverbs.
Most adverbs answer the question “How?” “When?” “Where?” or “To what degree or extent?”
+19.+ Observe that adverbs modify verbs in much the same way in which adjectives modify nouns.
Adjectives Adverbs
A _bright_ fire burned. The fire burned _brightly_. A _fierce_ wind blew. The wind blew _fiercely_.
+A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is called a modifier.+
Adjectives and adverbs, then, are both +modifiers+. Adjectives modify substantives; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
VI. Prepositions
+20.+ +A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.+
+The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object.+
A preposition is said to +govern+ its object.
In “The surface _of_ the water glistened,” _of_ makes it clear that _surface_ belongs with _water_. In “Philip is _on_ the river,” _on_ shows Philip’s position with respect to the river. _In_, or _near_, or _beyond_ would have indicated a different relation. _Water_ is the object of the preposition _of_, and _river_ is the object of the preposition _on_.
+21.+ A preposition often has more than one object.
Over _hill_ and _dale_ he ran.
He was filled with _shame_ and _despair_.
VII. Conjunctions
+22.+ +A conjunction connects words or groups of words.+
A conjunction differs from a preposition in having no object, and in indicating a less definite relation between the words which it connects.
In “Time _and_ tide wait for no man,” “The parcel was small _but_ heavy,” “He wore a kind of doublet _or_ jacket,” the conjunctions _and_, _but_, _or_, connect single words,--_time_ with _tide_, _small_ with _heavy_, _doublet_ with _jacket_. In “Do not go _if_ you are afraid,” “I came _because_ you sent for me,” “Take my key, _but_ do not lose it,” “Sweep the floor _and_ dust the furniture,” each conjunction connects the entire group of words preceding it with the entire group following it.
VIII. Interjections
+23.+ +An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling.+
Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the groups of words in which they stand; hence their name, which means “thrown in.”
EXAMPLES: _Oh!_ I forgot. _Ah_, how I miss you! _Bravo!_ _Alas!_
The Same Word As Different Parts Of Speech
+24.+ +The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part of speech it belongs.+
+The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes another.+
Words of entirely separate origin, meaning, and use sometimes look and sound alike: as in “The minstrel sang a plaintive _lay_,” and “He _lay_ on the ground.” But the following examples (§ 25) show that the same word may have more than one kind of grammatical office (or function). It is the +meaning+ which we give to a word +in the sentence+ that determines its classification as a part of speech.
+25.+ The chief classes of words thus variously used are (1) nouns and adjectives, (2) nouns and verbs, (3) adjectives and adverbs, (4) adjectives and pronouns, (5) adverbs and prepositions.
I. Nouns And Adjectives
Nouns Adjectives
_Rubber_ comes from South This wheel has a _rubber_ tire. America.
That _brick_ is yellow. Here is a _brick_ house.
The _rich_ have a grave A _rich_ merchant lives here. responsibility.
The first two examples show how words that are commonly nouns may be used as adjectives; the third shows how words that are commonly adjectives may be used as nouns.
II. Nouns And Verbs
Nouns Verbs
Hear the _wash_ of the tide. _Wash_ those windows. Give me a _stamp_. _Stamp_ this envelope. It is the _call_ of the sea. Ye _call_ me chief.
Other examples are: act, address, ally, answer, boast, care, cause, close, defeat, doubt, drop, heap, hope, mark, offer, pile, place, rest, rule, sail, shape, sleep, spur, test, watch, wound.
III. Adjectives And Adverbs
Adjectives Adverbs
That is a _fast_ boat. The snow is melting _fast_. Draw a _straight_ line. The arrow flew _straight_. _Early_ comers get good seats. Tom awoke _early_.
For an explanation of the form of these adverbs, see § 191.
IV. Adjectives And Pronouns
Adjectives Pronouns
_This_ man looks unhappy. _This_ is the sergeant. _That_ book is a dictionary. _That_ is a kangaroo. _Each_ day brings its opportunity. I received a dollar from _each_.
For further study of this class of words, see pp. 62–65.
V. Adverbs And Prepositions
Adverbs Prepositions
Jill came tumbling _after_. He returned _after_ the accident. We went _below_. _Below_ us lay the valley. The weeds sprang _up_. We walked _up_ the hill.
Other examples are: aboard, before, beyond, down, inside, underneath.
Miscellaneous examples of variation are the following:--
NOUN. The _calm_ lasted for three days. ADJECTIVE. _Calm_ words show quiet minds. VERB. _Calm_ your angry friend.
Other examples are: iron, stone, paper, sugar, salt, bark, quiet, black, light, head, wet, round, square, winter, spring.
NOUN. _Wrong_ seldom prospers. ADJECTIVE. You have taken the _wrong_ road. ADVERB. Edward often spells words _wrong_. VERB. You _wrong_ me by your suspicions.
NOUN. The _outside_ of the castle is gloomy. ADJECTIVE. We have an _outside_ stateroom. ADVERB. The messenger is waiting _outside_. PREPOSITION. I shall ride _outside_ the coach.
ADJECTIVE. _That_ boat is a sloop. PRONOUN. _That_ is my uncle. CONJUNCTION. You said _that_ you would help me.
ADJECTIVE. _Neither_ road leads to Utica. PRONOUN. _Neither_ of us arrived in time. CONJUNCTION. _Neither_ Tom nor I was late.
PREPOSITION. I am waiting _for_ the train. CONJUNCTION. You have plenty of time, _for_ the train is late.
INTERJECTION. _Hurrah!_ the battle is won. NOUN. I heard a loud _hurrah_. VERB. The enemy flees. Our men _hurrah_.
Infinitives And Participles
+26.+ Two classes of verb-forms illustrate in a striking way the fact that the same word may belong to different parts of speech; for they really belong to two different parts of speech at one and the same time. These are the +infinitive+ (which is both +verb+ and +noun+) and the +participle+ (which is both +verb+ and +adjective+).
+27.+ Examples of the +infinitive+ may be seen in the following sentences:
_To struggle_ was useless.
_To escape_ is impossible.
_To exercise_ regularly preserves the health.
_To struggle_ is clearly a +noun+, for (1) it is the subject of the sentence, and (2) the noun _effort_ or _exertion_ might be put in the place of _to struggle_. Similarly, the noun _escape_ might be substituted for _to escape_; and, in the third sentence, _regular exercise_ (a noun modified by an adjective) might be substituted for _to exercise regularly_.
But these three forms (_to struggle_, _to escape_, and _to exercise_) are also +verbs+, for they express action, and one of them (_to exercise_) is modified by an adverb (_regularly_). Such forms, therefore, are noun-forms of the verb. They are classed with verbs, and are called +infinitives+.
+28.+ +The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It is commonly preceded by the preposition _to_, which is called the sign of the infinitive.+
+29.+ The infinitive without _to_ is used in a great variety of verb-phrases.
I _shall go_.
John _will win_.
Mary _may recite_.
Jack _can swim_.
Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.
NOTE. That _go_, _win_, _recite_, and _swim_ are infinitives may be seen by comparing the following sentences:--“I intend _to go_,” “John is sure _to win_,” “Mary is permitted _to recite_,” “Jack is able _to swim_.”
+30.+ The following sentence contains two +participles+:--
_Shattered_ and slowly _sinking_, the frigate drifted out to sea.
In this sentence, we recognize _shattered_ as a form of the +verb+ _shatter_, and _sinking_ as a form of the +verb+ _sink_. They both express action, and _sinking_ is modified by the adverb _slowly_. But _shattered_ and _sinking_ have also the nature of +adjectives+, for they are used to describe the noun _frigate_. Such words, then, are adjective forms of the verb. They are classed as verbs, and are called +participles+, because they share (or participate in) the nature of adjectives.
+31.+ +The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.+
A participle is said to +belong to+ the substantive which it describes or limits.
+32.+ The chief classes of participles are +present participles+ and +past participles+, so called from the time which they denote.
All present participles end in _ing_. Past participles have several different endings, which will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs (§ 334).
+33.+ Participles are used in a variety of verb-phrases.
Tom _is coming_.
Our boat _was wrecked_.
I _have sent_ the money.
He _has brought_ me a letter.
Your book _is found_.
They _have sold_ their horses.
You _have broken_ your watch.
The ship _had struck_ on the reef.
Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.
NOTE. The double nature of the infinitive (as both verb and noun) and the participle (as both verb and adjective) almost justifies one in classifying each as a distinct part of speech (so as to make ten parts of speech instead of eight). But it is more convenient to include them under the head of verbs, in accordance with the usual practice.
Simple And Complete Subject And Predicate
+34.+ Our survey of the eight parts of speech has shown, (1) that these have very different offices or functions in the sentence, and (2) that their functions are not of equal importance.
Clearly, the most important parts of speech are +substantives+ (nouns and pronouns) and +verbs+.
Substantives enable us to +name or designate+ persons, places, or things, and verbs enable us to +make statements+ about them. Both substantives and verbs, then, are absolutely necessary in framing sentences. Without a substantive, there can be no +subject+; without a verb, there can be no +predicate+: and both a subject and a predicate, as we have seen, are needed to make a sentence.
+Adjectives+ and +adverbs+ are less important than substantives and verbs. Their function is to +modify+ other parts of speech, that is, to change their meaning in some way. Thus adjectives modify substantives (by describing or limiting), and adverbs usually modify verbs (by indicating _how_, _when_, or _where_ the action took place). Without substantives, there would be no use for adjectives; without verbs, there would be little use for adverbs.
+Prepositions+ and +conjunctions+ are also less important than substantives and verbs. Their office is to connect and to show relation. Of course, there would be no place for connectives if there were nothing to connect.
+Interjections+ are the least important of all. They add liveliness to language, but they are not actual necessities. We could express all the thoughts that enter our minds without ever using an interjection.
+35.+ A sentence may consist of but two words,--a noun or pronoun (the subject) and a verb (the predicate). Thus,--
Charles | swims.
Commonly, however, either the subject or the predicate, or both, will contain more than one word. Thus,--
Young Charles | swims slowly.
Here the +complete subject+ (_young Charles_) consists of a noun (_Charles_) and an adjective (_young_), which describes _Charles_. The +complete predicate+ consists of a verb (_swims_) and an adverb (_slowly_), which modifies _swim_ by indicating _how_ the action is performed. The subject noun (_Charles_) and the predicate verb (_swims_) are the chief words in the sentence, for neither could be omitted without destroying it. They form, so to speak, the frame or skeleton of the whole. Either of the two modifiers, the adjective or the adverb, or both, might be omitted, without destroying the sentence; for this would still exist as the expression of a thought (_Charles swims_), though the thought would be less definite and exact than it is when the modifiers are included.
+36.+ +The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun.+
+The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase.+
+The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete subject.+
+The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete predicate.+
In each of the following sentences the +complete subject+ and the +complete predicate+ are separated by a vertical line, and the +simple subject+ and the +simple predicate+ are printed in italics:--
The _spider_ | _spreads_ her web.
The fiery _smoke_ | _rose_ upward in billowing volumes.
A nameless _unrest_ | _urged_ me forward.
Our frantic _horses_ | _swept_ round an angle of the road.
The _infirmities_ of age | _came_ early upon him.
The general _feeling_ among the English in Bengal | _was_ strongly in favor of the Governor General.
_Salutes_ | _were fired_ from the batteries.
The _Clives_ | _had been settled_ ever since the twelfth century on an estate of no great value near Market Drayton in Shropshire.
_I_ | _have written_ repeatedly to Mr. Hobhouse.
+37.+ Two or more simple subjects may be joined to make one +compound subject+, and two or more simple predicates to make one +compound predicate+.
1. _Charles_ and _Henry_ | play tennis well.
2. _Moore_ and _I_ | passed some merry days together.
3. _Frances_ and _she_ | are friends.
4. _Hats_, _caps_, _boots_, and _gloves_ | were piled together in confusion.
5. The watch | _sank_ and _was lost_.
6. The balloon | _rose_ higher and higher and finally _disappeared_.
7. He | neither _smiled_ nor _frowned_.
8. _Snow_ and _ice_ | _covered_ the ground and _made_ our progress difficult.
+38.+ +A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple subjects or predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions.+
+Either the subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound.+
In the first example in § 37, two simple subjects (_Charles_ and _Henry_) are joined by the conjunction _and_ to make a compound subject. In the fourth, four substantives (_hats_, _caps_, _boots_, _gloves_) form a series in which the last two are joined by _and_. In the fifth, sixth, and seventh, the predicates are compound; in the eighth, both the subject and the predicate.
+39.+ The following conjunctions may be used to join the members of a compound subject or predicate: _and_ (_both_ ... _and_), _or_ (_either_ ... _or_; _whether_ ... _or_), _nor_ (_neither_ ... _nor_).
Substitutes For Parts Of Speech
Phrases
+40.+ A group of words may take the place of a part of speech
_The Father of Waters_ is the Mississippi.
A girl _with blue eyes_ stood _at the window_.
You _are looking_ well.
_The Father of Waters_ is used as a noun, since it names something.
_With blue eyes_ takes the place of an adjective (_blue-eyed_), and modifies _girl_.
_At the window_ indicates, as an adverb might, where the girl stood, and modifies _stood_.
_Are looking_ could be replaced by the verb _look_.
+41.+ +A group of connected words, not containing a subject and a predicate, is called a phrase.+
+A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech.+
1. A phrase used as a noun is called a +noun-phrase+.
2. A phrase used as a verb is called a +verb-phrase+.
3. A phrase used as an adjective is called an +adjective phrase+.
4. A phrase used as an adverb is called an +adverbial phrase+.
In the examples in § 40, _The Father of Waters_ is a noun-phrase; _with blue eyes_, an adjective phrase; _at the window_, an adverbial phrase; _are looking_, a verb-phrase.
+42.+ Many adjective and adverbial phrases consist of a +preposition and its object+, with or without other words.
Your umbrella is _in the corner_.
He has a heart _of oak_.
A cup _with a broken handle_ stood _on the shelf_.
My house _of cards_ fell _to the floor in a heap_.
+Adjective or adverbial phrases consisting of a preposition and its object, with or without other words, may be called prepositional phrases.+
Clauses--Compound And Complex Sentences
+43.+ Phrases must be carefully distinguished from +clauses+. The difference is that a clause contains a subject and a predicate and a phrase does not.
+44.+ +A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate.+
The lightning flashed | and | the thunder roared.
The train started | when the bell rang.
Each of these sentences contains two clauses; but the relation between the clauses in the first sentence is very different from that between the clauses in the second.
In the first example, each of the two clauses makes a separate and distinct statement, and might stand by itself as a simple sentence,--that is, as a sentence having but one subject and one predicate. These clauses are joined by the conjunction _and_, which is not a part of either. No doubt the speaker feels that there is some relation in thought between the two statements, or he would not have put them together as clauses in the same sentence. But there is nothing in the form of expression to show what that relation is. In other words, the two clauses are grammatically +independent+, for neither of them modifies (or affects the meaning of) the other. The clauses are therefore said to be +coördinate+,--that is, of the same “order” or rank, and the sentence is called +compound+.
In the second example, on the contrary, the relation between the two clauses is indicated with precision. One clause (_the train started_) makes the main statement,--it expresses the chief fact. Hence it is called the +main+ (or +principal+) +clause+. The other clause (_when the bell rang_) is added because the speaker wishes to +modify+ the main verb (_started_) by defining the time of the action. This clause, then, is used as a +part of speech+. Its function is the same as that of an adverb (_promptly_) or an adverbial phrase (_on the stroke of the bell_). For this purpose alone it exists, and not as an independent statement. Hence it is called a +dependent+ (or +subordinate+) +clause+, because it +depends+ (that is, “hangs”) upon the main clause, and so occupies a lower or “subordinate” rank in the sentence. When thus constructed, a sentence is said to be +complex+.
+45.+ An ordinary +compound sentence+ (as we have seen in § 44) is made by joining two or more simple sentences, each of which thus becomes an +independent coördinate clause+.
In the same way we may join two or more +complex sentences+, using them as clauses to make one compound sentence:--
The train started when the bell rang, | and | Tom watched until the last car disappeared.
This sentence is manifestly +compound+, for it consists of two +coördinate clauses+ (_the train started when the bell rang_; _Tom watched until the last car disappeared_) joined by _and_. Each of these two clauses is itself +complex+, for each could stand by itself as a complex sentence.
Similarly, a +complex+ and a +simple+ sentence may be joined as coördinate clauses to make a compound sentence.
The train started when the bell rang, | and | Tom gazed after it in despair.
Such a sentence, which is +compound in its structure+, but in which one or more of the coördinate clauses are +complex+, is called a +compound complex sentence+.[9]
+46.+ +A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate.+
+A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause. All other clauses are said to be independent.+
+Clauses of the same order or rank are said to be coördinate.+
+Sentences may be simple, compound, or complex.+
1. +A simple sentence has but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound.+
2. +A compound sentence consists of two or more independent coördinate clauses, which may or may not be joined by conjunctions.+
3. +A complex sentence consists of two or more clauses, one of which is independent and the rest subordinate.+
+A compound sentence in which one or more of the coördinate clauses are complex is called a compound complex sentence.+
I. Simple Sentences
Iron rusts.
George V is king.
Dogs, foxes, and hares are quadrupeds. [Compound subject.]
The defendant rose and addressed the court. [Compound predicate.]
Merton and his men crossed the bridge and scaled the wall. [Both subject and predicate are compound.]
II. Compound Sentences
Shakspere was born in 1564; he died in 1616. [Two coördinate clauses; no conjunction.]
A rifle cracked, and the wolf fell dead. [Two clauses joined by the conjunction _and_.]
You must hurry, or we shall lose the train. [Two clauses joined by _or_.]
James Watt did not invent the steam engine, but he greatly improved it. [Two clauses joined by _but_.]
Either you have neglected to write or your letter has failed to reach me. [Two clauses joined by _either_ ... _or_.]
The following conjunctions may be used to join coördinate clauses: _and_ (_both_ ... _and_), _or_ (_either_ ... _or_), _nor_ (_neither_ ... _nor_), _but_, _for_.
III. Complex Sentences
Examples will be found in §§ 48–50.
Clauses As Parts Of Speech
+47.+ +Subordinate clauses+, like phrases, are used as +parts of speech+. They serve as substitutes for +nouns+, for +adjectives+, or for +adverbs+.
1. +A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun (or substantive) clause.+
2. +A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an adjective clause.+
3. +A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial clause.+
+48.+ I. Noun (Or Substantive) Clauses.
{_Success_ | _That we should succeed in this plan_} is improbable.
The thought in these two sentences is the same, but in the second it is more fully expressed. In the first sentence, the subject is the noun _success_; in the second, the subject is the noun clause, _that we should succeed in this plan_. This clause is introduced by the conjunction _that_; the simple subject of the clause is the pronoun _we_, and the simple predicate is the verb-phrase _should succeed_. The first sentence is +simple+; the second is +complex+.
Substantive clauses are often introduced by the conjunction _that_.
+49.+ II. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. The following sentences illustrate the use of (1) an +adjective+, (2) an +adjective phrase+, (3) an +adjective clause+, as a modifier of the subject noun.
{An _honorable_ man | A man _of honor_ | A man _who values his honor_} will not lie.
{A _seasonable_ word | A word _in season_ | A word _that is spoken at the right moment_} may save a soul.
{My _native_ land | The land _of my birth_ | The land _where I was born_} lies far across the sea.
The first two sentences in each group are +simple+, the third is +complex+.
+50.+ III. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. The following sentences illustrate the use of (1) an +adverb+, (2) an +adverbial phrase+, (3) an +adverbial clause+, as a modifier of the predicate verb (or verb-phrase).
The lightning struck {_here_. | _on this spot_. | _where we stand_.}
Mr. Andrews lives {_near_. | _in this neighborhood_. | _where you see that elm_.}
The game began {_punctually_. | _on the stroke of one_. | _when the clock struck_.}
The banker will make the loan {_conditionally_. | _on one condition_. | _if you endorse my note_.}
The first two sentences in each group are +simple+, the third is +complex+.
+51.+ Adjective clauses may be introduced (1) by the pronouns _who_, _which_, and _that_, or (2) by adverbs like _where_, _whence_, _whither_, _when_.
Adverbial clauses may be introduced (1) by the adverbs _where_, _whither_, _whence_, _when_, _while_, _before_, _after_, _until_, _how_, _as_, or (2) by the conjunctions _because_, _though_, _although_, _if_, _that_ (_in order that_, _so that_), _lest_, etc.
NOTE. The use of +phrases+ and +clauses+ as +parts of speech+ increases enormously the richness and power of language. Though English has a huge stock of words, it cannot provide a separate noun or adjective or adverb for every idea. By grouping words, however, in phrases and clauses we, in effect, make a great variety of new nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, each precisely fitted to the needs of the moment in the expression of thought.
Summary Of Definitions
The Sentence
1. Language is thought expressed in words.
2. To express thought words are combined into sentences.
3. A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought.
4. Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.
(1) A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact.
(2) An interrogative sentence asks a question.
(3) An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request.
(4) An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief, or some other emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry.
A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence may also be exclamatory.
Subject And Predicate
5. Every sentence consists of a subject and a predicate.
The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that is spoken of; the predicate is that which is said of the subject.
6. The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun.
The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase.
7. The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete subject.
The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete predicate.
8. A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple subjects or predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions.
Either the subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound.
The Parts Of Speech
9. In accordance with their use in the sentence, words are divided into eight classes called parts of speech,--namely, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.
(1) A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.
(2) A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a person, place, or thing without naming it.
Nouns and pronouns are called substantives.
The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.
(3) An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive.
This it usually does by indicating some quality.
An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.
An adjective which describes is called a descriptive adjective; one which points out or designates is called a definitive adjective.
(4) A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action) concerning a person, place, or thing.
Some verbs express state or condition rather than action.
A group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.
Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called auxiliary (that is, “aiding”) verbs, because they help other verbs to express action or state of some particular kind.
_Is_ (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate describe or define the subject. In such sentences, _is_ and other verbs that are used for the same purpose are called copulative (that is, “joining”) verbs.
(5) An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is called a modifier.
Adjectives and adverbs are both modifiers.
(6) A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.
The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object.
(7) A conjunction connects words or groups of words.
(8) An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling.
10. The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part of speech it belongs.
The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes another.
11. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It is commonly preceded by the preposition _to_, which is called the sign of the infinitive.
12. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.
A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.
The chief classes of participles are present participles and past participles, so called from the time which they denote.
Substitutes For The Parts Of Speech
Phrases
13. A group of connected words, not containing a subject and a predicate, is called a phrase.
A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech.
(1) A phrase used as a noun is called a noun-phrase.
(2) A phrase used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.
(3) A phrase used as an adjective is called an adjective phrase.
(4) A phrase used as an adverb is called an adverbial phrase.
14. Adjective or adverbial phrases consisting of a preposition and its object, with or without other words, may be called prepositional phrases.
Clauses
15. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate.
16. A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause. All other clauses are said to be independent.
17. Clauses of the same order or rank are said to be coördinate.
18. Sentences may be simple, compound, or complex.
(1) A simple sentence has but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound.
(2) A compound sentence consists of two or more independent coördinate clauses, which may or may not be joined by conjunctions.
(3) A complex sentence consists of two or more clauses, one of which is independent and the rest subordinate.
A compound sentence in which one or more of the coördinate clauses are complex is called a compound complex sentence.
19. Subordinate clauses, like phrases, are used as parts of speech. They serve as substitutes for nouns, for adjectives, or for adverbs.
(1) A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun (or substantive) clause.
(2) A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an adjective clause.
(3) A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial clause.
Part Two
Inflection And Syntax
Chapter I
Inflection
+52.+ +Inflection is a change of form in a word indicating some change in its meaning. A word thus changed in form is said to be inflected.+
Thus the nouns _man_, _wife_, _dog_, may change their form to _man’s_, _wife’s_, _dog’s_, to express possession; or to _men_, _wives_, _dogs_, to show that two or more are meant.
The pronouns _I_, _she_, may change their form to _our_, _her_.
The adjectives _large_, _happy_, _good_, may change their form to _larger_, _happier_, _better_, to denote a higher degree of the quality; or to _largest_, _happiest_, _best_, to denote the highest degree.
The verbs _look_, _see_, _sing_, may change their form to _looked_, _saw_, _sang_, to denote past time.
The examples show that a word may be inflected (1) by the addition of a final letter or syllable (_dog_, _dogs_; _look_, _looked_), (2) by the substitution of one letter for another (_man_, _men_), or (3) by a complete change of form (_good_, _better_, _best_).
+53.+ The inflection of a substantive is called its +declension+; that of an adjective or an adverb, its +comparison+; that of a verb, its +conjugation+.
NOTE. Some forms which we regard as due to inflection are really distinct words. Thus _we_ is regarded as a form of the pronoun _I_, but it is in fact an altogether different word. Such irregularities, however, are not numerous, and are properly enough included under the head of inflection.
The table below gives a summary view of inflection, and may be used for reference with the following chapters.
Substantives (Nouns And Pronouns)
Gender { Masculine (_male_) { Feminine (_female_) { Neuter (_no sex_)
Number { Singular (_one_) { Plural (_more than one_)
Person { First (_speaker_) { Second (_spoken to_) { Third (_spoken of_)
Case { Nominative (_subject case_) { Possessive (_ownership_) { Objective (_object case_)
Adjectives And Adverbs
Comparison { Positive Degree { Comparative Degree { Superlative Degree
Verbs
Number { Singular } { Plural } } _Verb agrees with Subject_ Person { First } { Second } { Third }
Tense { Simple Tenses { Present { { Past { { Future { { Compound Tenses { Perfect (or Present Perfect) { { Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) { { Future Perfect
Mood { Indicative (_all six tenses_) { Imperative (_Present Tense only_) { Subjunctive (_Present_, _Past_, _Perfect_, _Pluperfect_)
Voice { Active (_Subject acts_) { Passive (_Subject receives the action_)
Infinitives (Present and Perfect) Participles (Present, Past, and Perfect)
Chapter II
Nouns
Classification--Common Nouns And Proper Nouns
+54.+ +A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.+
+55.+ +Nouns are divided into two classes--proper nouns and common nouns.+
1. +A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, or thing.+
EXAMPLES: Lincoln, Napoleon, Ruth, Gladstone, America, Denver, Jove, Ohio, Monday, December, Yale, Christmas, Britannia, Niagara, Merrimac, Elmwood, Louvre, Richardson, Huron, Falstaff.
2. +A common noun is a name which may be applied to any one of a class of persons, places, or things.+
EXAMPLES: general, emperor, president, clerk, street, town, desk, tree, cloud, chimney, childhood, idea, thought, letter, dynamo, cruiser, dictionary, railroad.
Proper nouns begin with a capital letter; common nouns usually begin with a small letter.
NOTE. Although a proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, or thing, that name may be given to more than one individual. More than one man is named _James_; but when we say _James_, we think of one particular person, whom we are calling by his own name. When we say _man_, on the contrary, we are not calling any single person by name: we are using a noun which applies, in common, to all the members of a large class of persons.
Any word, when mentioned merely +as a word+, is a noun. Thus,--
_And_ is a conjunction.
+56.+ A common noun becomes a proper noun when used as the particular name of a ship, a newspaper, an animal, etc.
Nelson’s flagship was the _Victory_.
Give me this evening’s _Herald_.
My dog is named _Rover_.
The _Limited Express_ is drawn by the _Pioneer_.
+57.+ A proper noun often consists of a group of words, some of which are perhaps ordinarily used as other parts of speech.
EXAMPLES: James Russell Lowell, Washington Elm, Eiffel Tower, Firth of Clyde, North Lexington Junction, Stony Brook, Westminster Abbey, Measure for Measure, White House, Brooklyn Bridge, Atlantic Railroad, Sherman Act, The Return of the Native, Flatiron Building.
NOTE. These are (strictly speaking) noun-phrases (§ 41); but, since all are particular names, they may be regarded as proper nouns.
+58.+ A proper noun becomes a common noun when used as a name that may be applied to any one of a class of objects.
The museum owns two _Rembrandts_ and a _Titian_.
I exchanged my old motor car for a new _Halstead_.
My fountain pen is a _Blake_.
Lend me your _Webster_.
He was a _Napoleon_ of finance.
I am going to buy a _Kazak_.
+59.+ Certain proper nouns have become common nouns when used in a special sense. These generally begin with a small letter.
EXAMPLES: macadam (crushed stone for roads, so called from Macadam, the inventor), mackintosh (a waterproof garment), napoleon (a coin), guinea (twenty-one shillings), mentor (a wise counsellor), derringer (a kind of pistol).
+60.+ A lifeless object, one of the lower animals, or any human quality or emotion is sometimes regarded as a person.
This usage is called +personification+, and the object, animal, or quality is said to be +personified+.
Each old poetic _Mountain_ Inspiration breathed around.--GRAY.
Who’ll toll the bell? “I,” said the _Bull_, “Because I can pull.”
His name was _Patience_.--SPENSER.
Smiles on past _Misfortune’s_ brow Soft _Reflection’s_ hand can trace; And o’er the cheek of _Sorrow_ throw A melancholy grace.--GRAY.
_Love_ is and was my lord and king, And in his presence I attend.--TENNYSON.
_Time_ gently shakes his wings.--DRYDEN.
The name of anything personified is regarded as a proper noun and is usually written with a capital letter.
NOTE. The rule for capitals is not absolute. When the personification is kept up for only a sentence or two (as frequently in Shakspere), the noun often begins with a small letter.
Special Classes Of Nouns
+61.+ +An abstract noun is the name of a quality or general idea.+
EXAMPLES: blackness, freshness, smoothness, weight, height, length, depth, strength, health, honesty, beauty, liberty, eternity, satisfaction, precision, splendor, terror, disappointment, elegance, existence, grace, peace.
Many abstract nouns are derived from adjectives.
EXAMPLES: greenness (from _green_), depth (from _deep_), freedom (from _free_), wisdom (from _wise_), rotundity (from _rotund_), falsity or falseness (from _false_), bravery (from _brave_).
+62.+ +A collective noun is the name of a group, class, or multitude, and not of a single person, place, or thing.+
EXAMPLES: crowd, group, legislature, squadron, sheaf, battalion, squad, Associated Press, Mediterranean Steamship Company, Senior Class, School Board.
The same noun may be +abstract+ in one of its meanings, +collective+ in another.
They believe in _fraternity_. [Abstract.]
The student joined a _fraternity_. [Collective.]
+63.+ Abstract nouns are usually common, but become proper when the quality or idea is personified (§ 60).
Collective nouns may be either proper or common.
+64.+ +A noun consisting of two or more words united is called a compound noun.+
EXAMPLES: (1) common nouns,--tablecloth, sidewalk, lampshade, bedclothes, steamboat, fireman, washerwoman, jackknife, hatband, headache, flatiron, innkeeper, knife-edge, steeple-climber, brother-in-law, commander-in-chief, window curtain, insurance company; (2) proper nouns,--Johnson, Williamson, Cooperstown, Louisville, Holywood, Elk-horn, Auburndale, Stratford-on-Avon, Lowell Junction.
As the examples show, the parts of a compound noun may be joined (with or without a hyphen) or written separately. In some words usage is fixed, in others it varies. The hyphen, however, is less used than formerly.
NOTE. The first part of a compound noun usually limits the second after the manner of an adjective. Indeed, many expressions may be regarded either (1) as compounds or (2) as phrases containing an adjective and a noun. Thus _railway conductor_ may be taken as a compound noun, or as a noun (_conductor_) limited by an adjective (_railway_).
Inflection Of Nouns
+65.+ In studying the inflection of nouns and pronouns we have to consider +gender+, +number+, +person+, and +case+.
1. +Gender is distinction according to sex.+
2. +Number is that property of substantives which shows whether they indicate one person or thing or more than one.+
3. +Person is that property of substantives which shows whether they designate (1) the speaker, (2) the person spoken to, or (3) the person or thing spoken of.+
4. +Substantives have inflections of case to indicate their grammatical relations to verbs, to prepositions, or to other substantives.+
These four properties of substantives are included under inflection for convenience. In strictness, however, nouns are inflected for number and case only. Gender is shown in various ways,--usually by the meaning of the noun or by the use of some pronoun. Person is indicated by the sense, by the pronouns used, and by the form of the verb.
I. Gender
+66.+ +Gender is distinction according to sex.+
+Nouns and pronouns may be of the masculine, the feminine, or the neuter gender.+
1. +A noun or pronoun denoting a male being is of the masculine gender.+
EXAMPLES: Joseph, boy, cockerel, buck, footman, butler, brother, father, uncle, he.
2. +A noun or pronoun denoting a female being is of the feminine gender.+
EXAMPLES: girl, Julia, hen, waitress, maid, doe, spinster, matron, aunt, squaw, she.
3. +A noun or pronoun denoting a thing without animal life is of the neuter gender.+
EXAMPLES: pencil, light, water, star, book, dust, leaf, it.
A noun or pronoun which is sometimes masculine and sometimes feminine is often said to be of +common gender+.
EXAMPLES: bird, speaker, artist, animal, cat, European, musician, operator, they.
+67.+ +A pronoun must be in the same gender as the noun for which it stands or to which it refers.+
Each of the following pronouns is limited to a single gender:
MASCULINE: _he_, _his_, _him_. FEMININE: _she_, _her_, _hers_. NEUTER: _it_, _its_.
All other pronouns vary in gender.
_Robert_ greeted _his_ employer. [Masculine.]
A _mother_ passed with _her_ child. [Feminine.]
This _tree_ has lost _its_ foliage. [Neuter.]
_Who_ laughed? [Masculine or feminine.]
How do _you_ do? [Masculine or feminine.]
_They_ have disappeared. [Masculine, feminine, or neuter.]
I do not care for _either_. [Masculine, feminine, or neuter.]
+68.+ A neuter noun may become masculine or feminine by +personification+ (§ 60).
Thou who didst waken from his summer dreams The blue Mediterranean.--SHELLEY.
Stern daughter of the Voice of God! O Duty!--WORDSWORTH.
Nature from her seat Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe.--MILTON.
+69.+ In speaking of certain objects, such as a ship and the moon, it is customary to use _she_ and _her_. In like manner, _he_ is used in speaking of the sun and of most animals, without reference to sex, although _it_ often designates an insect or other small creature, and even a very young child.
_Who_ and _which_ are both used in referring to the +lower animals+. _Which_ is the commoner, but _who_ is not infrequent, especially if the animal is thought of as an intelligent being.
Thus one would say, “The dog _which_ is for sale is in that kennel,” even if one added, “_He_ is a collie.” But _which_ would never be used in such a sentence as, “I have a dog _who_ loves children.”
+70.+ The +gender+ of masculine and of feminine nouns may be shown in various ways.
1. The male and the female of many kinds or classes of living beings are denoted by different words.
Masculine Feminine
father mother husband wife uncle aunt king queen monk nun wizard witch lord lady horse mare gander goose drake duck cock hen ram ewe bull cow hart hind buck doe fox vixen[10]
2. Some masculine nouns become feminine by the addition of an ending.
Masculine Feminine
heir heiress baron baroness lion lioness prince princess emperor empress tiger tigress executor executrix administrator administratrix hero heroine Joseph Josephine sultan sultana Philip Philippa
NOTE. The feminine gender is often indicated by the ending _ess_. Frequently the corresponding masculine form ends in _or_ or _er_: as,--actor, actress; governor, governess; waiter, waitress. The ending _ess_ is not so common as formerly. Usage favors _proprietor_, _author_, _editor_, etc., even for the feminine (rather than the harsher forms _proprietress_, _authoress_, _editress_), whenever there is no special reason for emphasizing the difference of sex.
3. A few feminine words become masculine by the addition of an ending. Thus,--_widow_, _widower_; _bride_, _bridegroom_.
4. Gender is sometimes indicated by the ending _man_, _woman_, _maid_, _boy_, or _girl_.
EXAMPLES: salesman, saleswoman; foreman, forewoman; laundryman; milkmaid; cash boy, cash girl.
5. A noun or a pronoun is sometimes prefixed to a noun to indicate gender.
EXAMPLES: manservant, maidservant; mother bird; cock sparrow, hen sparrow; boy friend, girl friend; he-wolf, she-wolf.
6. The gender of a noun may be indicated by some accompanying part of speech, usually by a pronoun.
My _cat_ is always washing _his_ face.
The _intruder_ shook _her_ head.
I was confronted by a pitiful _creature_, haggard and _unshaven_.
NOTE. The variations in form studied under 2 and 3 (above) are often regarded as inflections. In reality, however, the masculine and the feminine are different words. Thus, _baroness_ is not an inflectional form of _baron_, but a distinct noun, made from _baron_ by adding the ending _ess_, precisely as _barony_ and _baronage_ are made from _baron_ by adding the endings _y_ and _age_. The process is rather that of +derivation+ or noun-formation than that of inflection.
II. Number
+71.+ +Number is that property of substantives which shows whether they indicate one person, place, or thing or more than one.+
+There are two numbers,--the singular and the plural.+
+The singular number denotes but one person, place, or thing. The plural number denotes more than one person, place, or thing.+
+72.+ +Most nouns form the plural number by adding _s_ or _es_ to the singular.+
EXAMPLES: mat, mats; wave, waves; problem, problems; bough, boughs; John, Johns; nurse, nurses; tense, tenses; bench, benches; dish, dishes; class, classes; fox, foxes.
Special Rules
1. If the singular ends in _s_, _x_, _z_, _ch_, or _sh_, the plural ending is _es_.
EXAMPLES: loss, losses; box, boxes; buzz, buzzes; match, matches; rush, rushes.
2. Many nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant also take the ending _es_ in the plural.
EXAMPLES: hero, heroes; cargo, cargoes; potato, potatoes; motto, mottoes; buffalo, buffaloes; mosquito, mosquitoes.
3. Nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a vowel form their plural in _s_: as,--_cameo_, _cameos_; _folio_, _folios_.
4. The following nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant also form their plural in _s_:--
banjo bravo burro cantocasino chromo contralto duodecimo dynamo halo[11] junto lasso memento[11] octavo piano proviso quarto solo soprano stiletto torso tyro zero[11]
+73.+ In some nouns the addition of the plural ending alters the spelling and even the sound of the singular form.
1. Nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant change _y_ to _i_ and add _es_ in the plural.
EXAMPLES: sky, skies; fly, flies; country, countries; berry, berries. (Contrast: valley, valleys; chimney, chimneys; monkey, monkeys; boy, boys; day, days.)
Most proper names ending in _y_, however, take the plural in _s_.
EXAMPLES: Mary, Marys; Murphy, Murphys; Daly, Dalys; Rowley, Rowleys; May, Mays.
2. Some nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_, change the _f_ to _v_ and add _es_ or _s_.
EXAMPLES: wharf, wharves; wife, wives; shelf, shelves; wolf, wolves; thief, thieves; knife, knives; half, halves; calf, calves; life, lives; self, selves; sheaf, sheaves; loaf, loaves; leaf, leaves; elf, elves; beef, beeves.
+74.+ A few nouns form their plural in _en_.
These are: ox, oxen; brother, brethren (_or_ brothers); child, children.
NOTE. Ancient or poetical plurals belonging to this class are: _eyne_ (for _eyen_, from _eye_), _kine_ (cows), _shoon_ (shoes), _hosen_ (hose).
+75.+ A few nouns form their plural by a +change of vowel+.
These are: man, men; woman, women; merman, mermen; foot, feet; tooth, teeth; goose, geese; mouse, mice; louse, lice. Also compound words ending in _man_ or _woman_, such as fireman, firemen; saleswoman, saleswomen; Dutchman, Dutchmen.
NOTE. _German_, _Mussulman_, _Ottoman_, _dragoman_, _firman_, and _talisman_, which are not compounds of _man_, form their plurals regularly: as,--_Germans_, _Mussulmans_. _Norman_ also forms its plural in _s_.
+76.+ A few nouns have the same form in both singular and plural.
EXAMPLES: deer, sheep, heathen, Japanese, Portuguese, Iroquois.
NOTE. This class was larger in older English than at present. It included, for example, _year_, which in Shakspere has two plurals:--“six thousand _years_,” “twelve _year_ since.”
+77.+ A few nouns have two plurals, but usually with some difference in meaning.
Singular Plural
brother { brothers (relatives) { brethren (members of the same society)
horse { horses (animals) { horse (cavalry)
foot { feet (parts of the body) { foot (infantry)
sail { sails (on vessels) { sail (vessels in a fleet)
head { heads (in usual sense) { head (of cattle)
fish { fishes (individually) { fish (collectively)
penny { pennies (single coins) { pence (collectively)
cloth { cloths (pieces of cloth) { clothes (garments)
die { dies (for stamping) { dice (for gaming)
The _pennies_ were arranged in neat piles.
English money is reckoned in pounds, shillings, and _pence_.
+78.+ When +compound nouns+ are made plural, the last part usually takes the plural form; less often the first part; rarely both parts.
EXAMPLES: spoonful, spoonfuls; bathhouse, bathhouses; forget-me-not, forget-me-nots; editor-in-chief, editors-in-chief; maid-of-honor, maids-of-honor; gentleman usher, gentlemen ushers; Knight Templar, Knights Templars; Lord Justice, Lords Justices; manservant, menservants.
+79.+ Letters of the alphabet, figures, signs used in writing, and words regarded merely as words take _’s_ in the plural.
“Embarrassed” is spelled with two _r’s_ and two _s’s_.
Your _3’s_ look like _8’s_.
Tell the printer to change the §’s to ¶’s.
Don’t interrupt me with your _but’s_!
+80.+ Foreign nouns in English sometimes retain their foreign plurals; but many have an English plural also.
Some of the commonest are included in the following list:[12]
Singular Plural
alumna (feminine) alumnæ alumnus (masculine) alumni amanuensis amanuenses analysis analyses animalculum animalcula[13] antithesis antitheses appendix { appendices { appendixes axis axes bacillus bacilli bacterium bacteria bandit { banditti { bandits basis bases beau { beaux { beaus candelabrum candelabra cumulus cumuli cherub { cherubim { cherubs crisis crises curriculum curricula datum data ellipsis ellipses erratum errata formula { formulæ { formulas genius { genii { geniuses genus genera gymnasium { gymnasia { gymnasiums hippopotamus hippopotami hypothesis hypotheses larva larvæ memorandum { memoranda { memorandums nebula nebulæ oasis oases parenthesis parentheses phenomenon phenomena radius radii seraph { seraphim { seraphs species species stratum strata synopsis synopses tableau tableaux tempo tempi terminus termini thesis theses trousseau trousseaux vertebra vertebræ
The two plurals sometimes differ in meaning: as,--
Michael Angelo and Raphael were _geniuses_.
Spirits are sometimes called _genii_.
This book has two _indices_.
The printer uses signs called _indexes_.
+81.+ When a +proper name+ with the title _Mr._, _Mrs._, _Miss_, or _Master_, is put into the plural, the rules are as follows:--
1. The plural of _Mr._ is _Messrs._ (pronounced _Messers_[14]). The name remains in the singular. Thus,--
_Mr. Jackson_, plural _Messrs._ (or the _Messrs._) _Jackson_.
2. _Mrs._ has no plural. The name itself takes the plural form. Thus,--
_Mrs. Jackson_, plural _the Mrs. Jacksons_.
3. In the case of _Miss_, sometimes the title is put into the plural, sometimes the name. Thus,--
_Miss Jackson_, plural _the Misses Jackson_ or _the Miss Jacksons_.
The latter expression is somewhat informal. Accordingly, it would not be used in a formal invitation or reply, or in addressing a letter.
4. The plural of _Master_ is _Masters_. The name remains in the singular. Thus,--
_Master Jackson_, plural _the Masters Jackson_.
Other titles usually remain in the singular, the name taking the plural form: as,--_the two General Follansbys_. But when two or more names follow, the title becomes plural: as,--_Generals Rolfe and Johnson_.
+82.+ Some nouns, on account of their meaning, are seldom or never used in the plural.
Such are many names of qualities (as _cheerfulness_, _mirth_), of sciences (as _chemistry_[15]), of forces (as _gravitation_).
Many nouns, commonly used in the singular only, may take a plural in some special sense. Thus,--
earth (the globe) earths (kinds of soil) ice (frozen water) ices (food) tin (a metal) tins (tin dishes or cans) nickel (a metal) nickels (coins)
+83.+ Some nouns are used in the plural only.
Such are: annals, athletics, billiards, dregs, eaves, entrails, lees, nuptials, oats, obsequies, pincers, proceeds, riches, scissors, shears, suds, tweezers, tongs, trousers, victuals, vitals;
and (in certain special senses)
ashes, goods, links, scales, spectacles, stocks.
+84.+ A few nouns are plural in form, but singular in meaning.
Such are: gallows, news, measles, mumps, small pox (for _small pocks_), politics, and some names of sciences (as, civics, economics, ethics, mathematics, physics, optics).
NOTE. These nouns were formerly plural in sense as well as in form. _News_, for example, originally meant “new things.” Shakspere uses it both as a singular and as a plural. Thus,--“_This news_ was brought to Richard” (_King John_, v. 3. 12); “But wherefore do I tell _these news_ to thee?” (_1 Henry IV_, iii. 2. 121). In a few words modern usage varies. The following nouns are sometimes singular, sometimes plural: _alms_, _amends_, _bellows_, _means_, _pains_ (in the sense of “effort”), _tidings_.
III. Person
+85.+ +Person is that property of substantives which shows whether they denote (1) the speaker, (2) the person spoken to, or (3) the person spoken of.+
+A substantive is in the first person when it denotes the speaker, in the second person when it denotes the person spoken to, in the third person when it denotes the person or thing spoken of.+
I, the _king_, command his presence. [First person.]
You, _Thomas_, broke the window. [Second person.]
_Charles_, come here. [Second person.]
He, the _fireman_, saved the train. [Third person.]
The _diver_ sinks slowly from our view. [Third person.]
The _tower_ suddenly collapsed. [Third person.]
The examples show (1) that the person of a noun has nothing to do with its form, but is indicated by the sense or connection; (2) that certain pronouns denote person with precision. Thus, _I_ is always of the first person; _you_ of the second; and _he_ of the third. These personal pronouns will be treated in Chapter III.
IV. Case
+86.+ +Substantives have inflections of case to indicate their grammatical relations to verbs, to prepositions, or to other substantives.+
There are three cases,--the +nominative+, the +possessive+, and the +objective+.
The possessive case is often called the +genitive+.
The nominative and the objective case of a noun are always alike in form. In some pronouns, however, there is a difference (as,--_I_, _me_; _he_, _him_).
Declension Of Nouns
+87.+ The inflection of a substantive is called its +declension+. To +decline+ a noun is to give its case-forms in order, first in the singular number and then in the plural. Thus,--
Singular
_Nominative_ boy horse fly chimney _Possessive_ boy’s horse’s fly’s chimney’s _Objective_ boy horse fly chimney
Plural
_Nominative_ boys horses flies chimneys _Possessive_ boys’ horses’ flies’ chimneys’ _Objective_ boys horses flies chimneys
Singular
_Nominative_ calf lass man deer _Possessive_ calf’s lass’s man’s deer’s _Objective_ calf lass man deer
Plural
_Nominative_ calves lasses men deer _Possessive_ calves’ lasses’ men’s deer’s _Objective_ calves lasses men deer
Nominative Case
+88.+ The +nominative case+ is used in the following constructions: (1) the subject, (2) the predicate nominative, (3) the vocative, (or nominative of direct address), (4) the exclamatory nominative, (5) appositive with a nominative, (6) the nominative absolute.
1. +The subject of a verb is in the nominative case.+
_Water_ freezes.
_Charles_ climbed the mountain.
The boy’s _face_ glowed with health and exercise.
A thousand _men_ were killed in this battle.
In the third example, _face_ is the simple subject; the complete subject is _the boy’s face_. In the fourth, _men_ is the simple subject; the complete subject is _a thousand men_. Both _face_ and _men_ are in the nominative case; _face_ is in the singular number; _men_ in the plural.
2. +A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or defining the subject, agrees with the subject in case and is called a predicate nominative.+
A predicate nominative is also called a +subject complement+ or an +attribute+.
Lobsters are _crustaceans_.
A good book is a faithful _friend_.
Shakspere was a _native_ of Stratford-on-Avon.
Arnold proved a _traitor_.
Adams was elected _president_.
The rule for the case of the predicate nominative is particularly important with respect to pronouns (§ 119).
I am _he_. Are you _she_?
It is _I_. It was _we_ who did it.
The predicate nominative is commonest after the copula _is_ (in its various forms). It will be further studied in connection with intransitive and passive verbs (§§ 214, 252).
3. +A substantive used for the purpose of addressing a person directly, and not connected with any verb, is called a vocative.+
A vocative is in the nominative case, and is often called a +nominative by direct address+ or a +vocative nominative+.
Come, _Ruth_, give me your hand.
Turn to the right, _madam_.
_Herbert_, it is your turn.
Come with me, my _child_.
NOTE. A vocative word is sometimes said to be +independent by direct address+, because it stands by itself, unconnected with any verb. That a vocative is really in the nominative case may be seen in the use of the pronoun _thou_ in this construction: as,--I will arrest thee, _thou_ traitor (see § 115).
4. +A substantive used as an exclamation is called an exclamatory nominative (or nominative of exclamation).+
_Peace_, be still.
Fortunate _Ruth_!
A _drum_! a _drum_! Macbeth doth come.
Look! a _balloon_!
The _sun_! then we shall have a fine day.
Certain exclamatory nominatives are sometimes classed as interjections (§ 375).
5. +A substantive added to another substantive to explain it and signifying the same person or thing, is called an appositive and is said to be in apposition.+
+An appositive is in the same case as the substantive which it limits.+
Hence a substantive in apposition with a nominative is in the nominative case.
Mr. Scott, the _grocer_, is here. [Apposition with subject.]
Tom, old _fellow_, I am glad to see you. [Apposition with vocative.]
The discoverer of the Pacific was Balboa, a _Spaniard_. [Apposition with predicate nominative.]
NOTE. _Apposition_ means “attachment”; _appositive_ means “attached noun or pronoun.” An appositive modifies the noun with which it is in apposition much as an adjective might do (compare “Balboa, a _Spaniard_” with “_Spanish_ Balboa”). Hence it is classed as an adjective modifier.
Possessive Case
+89.+ +The possessive case denotes ownership or possession.+
_John’s_ yacht lies at her moorings.
The _duck’s_ feet are webbed.
The _mutineer’s_ pistol burst when he fired.
NOTE. Most uses of the possessive come under the general head of +possession+ in some sense. Special varieties of meaning are +source+ (as in “_hen’s_ eggs”) and +authorship+ (as in “_Wordsworth’s_ sonnets”).
A possessive noun or pronoun modifies the substantive to which it is attached as an adjective might do. Hence it is classed as an adjective modifier.
Forms of the Possessive Case
+90.+ +The possessive case of most nouns has, in the singular number, the ending _’s_.+
EXAMPLES: the owl’s feathers, Elizabeth’s hat, the officer’s name.
+Plural nouns ending in _s_ take no further ending for the possessive. In writing, however, an apostrophe is put after the _s_ to indicate the possessive case.+
EXAMPLES: the owls’ feathers, the officers’ names, the artists’ petition, the engineers’ ball.
+Plural nouns not ending in _s_ take _’s_ in the possessive.+
EXAMPLES: the firemen’s ball, the policemen’s quarters, the children’s hour.
NOTE. In older English the possessive of most nouns was written as well as pronounced with the ending _-es_ or _-is_. Thus, in Chaucer, the possessive of _child_ is _childës_ or _childis_; that of _king_ is _kingës_ or _kingis_; that of _John_ is _Johnës_ or _Johnis_. The use of an apostrophe in the possessive is a comparatively modern device, due to a misunderstanding. Scholars at one time thought the _s_ of the possessive a fragment of the pronoun _his_; that is, they took such a phrase as _George’s book_ for a contraction of _George his book_. Hence they used the apostrophe before _s_ to signify the supposed omission of part of the word _his_. Similarly, in the possessive plural, there was thought to be an omission of a final _es_; that is, such a phrase as _the horses’ heads_ was thought to be a contraction of the _horseses_ heads. Both these errors have long been exploded.
+91.+ Nouns like _sheep_ and _deer_, which have the same form in both the singular and the plural, usually take _’s_ in the possessive plural.
Thus, _the deer’s tracks_ would be written, whether one deer or more were meant.
+92.+ Possessive Singular Of Nouns Ending In _S_.
1. Monosyllabic nouns ending in _s_ or an _s_-sound usually make their possessive singular by adding _’s_.
EXAMPLES: Charles’s hat, Forbes’s garden, Mr. Wells’s daughter, Rice’s carriage, Mrs. Dix’s family, a fox’s brush.
NOTE. Most of these monosyllabic nouns in s are family names. The rule accords with the best usage; but it is not absolute, for usage varies. Hence forms like _Charles’_ and _Wells’_ cannot be condemned as positively wrong, though _Charles’s_ and _Wells’s_ are preferable. In speaking, the shorter form is often ambiguous, for there is no difference in sound between _Dix’_ and _Dick’s_, _Mr. Hills’_ and _Mr. Hill’s_, _Dr. Childs’_ and _Dr. Child’s_.
2. Nouns of two or more syllables ending in _s_ or an _s_-sound, and not accented on the last syllable, may make their possessive singular by adding _’s_, or may take no ending in the possessive.
In the latter case, an apostrophe is added in writing, but in sound there is no difference between the possessive and the nominative.
EXAMPLES: Burrows’s (_or_ Burrows’) Hotel, Æneas’s (_or_ Æneas’) voyage, Beatrice’s (_or_ Beatrice’) gratitude, Felix’s (_or_ Felix’) arrival, for conscience’s (_or_ conscience’) sake.
Most of the nouns in question are proper names. In speaking, one must often use the longer form to prevent ambiguity; for _Williams’_ and _William’s_, _Roberts’_ and _Robert’s_, _Robbins’_ and _Robin’s_, are indistinguishable in sound.
NOTE. Nouns of two or more syllables ending in _s_ or an _s_-sound and accented on the last syllable, follow the rule for monosyllables. Thus,--_Laplace’s_ mathematics (not _Laplace’_); _Alphonse’s_ father (not _Alphonse’_).
When final _s_ is silent (as in many French names), _’s_ must of course be added in the possessive. Thus,--_Descartes’s_ philosophy (pronounced _Daycárt’s_).
Use of the Possessive Case
+93.+[16] Possession may be denoted by a phrase with _of_ as well as by the possessive case. The distinction between the two forms cannot be brought under rigid rules, but the following suggestions will be of use.
I. In older English and in poetry the possessive case of nouns is freely used, but in modern prose it is rare unless the possessor is a living being. A phrase with _of_ is used instead.
The mayor _of Detroit_ (NOT _Detroit’s_ mayor).
The top _of the post_ (NOT the _post’s_ top).
The prevalence _of the epidemic_ (NOT the _epidemic’s_ prevalence).
Contrast the poetic use:--
_Belgium’s_ capital had gathered then Her beauty and her chivalry.--BYRON.
Other prepositions are sometimes used: as,--“the explosion in _New York_” (NOT “_New York’s_ explosion”), “the station _at Plymouth_.”
II. When the possessor is a living being, good usage varies.
1. If there is actual ownership or possession of some material thing, the possessive case is generally used in the singular: as,--“John’s _hat_” (not “the hat _of John_”). The possessive plural, however, is often replaced by a phrase with _of_, to avoid ambiguity or harshness: as,--“the jewels _of the ladies_” (rather than “the _ladies’_ jewels”)[17], “the wings _of the geese_” (rather than “the _geese’s_ wings”).
2. With nouns denoting a quality, an act, or the like, either the possessive or the _of_-phrase is proper: as,--“_John’s_ generosity,” or “the generosity _of John_”; “_John’s_ condition,” or “the condition _of John_”; “the _guide’s_ efforts,” or “the efforts _of the guide_”; “_Cæsar’s_ death,” or “the death _of Cæsar_.”
When there is any choice, it usually depends on euphony (that is, agreeable sound), and is therefore a question of style. Sometimes, however, there is a distinction in sense. “_John’s_ fear,” for example, indicates that John is afraid; but “the fear _of John_” means the fear which John inspires in others.
III. The following phrases are established idioms with the possessive. In some of them, however, the possessive may be replaced by _of_ and its object.
(1) The earth’s surface, the sun’s rays, the moon’s reflection, the pit’s mouth, a rope’s end, his journey’s end, at his wit’s end, the ship’s keel, the water’s edge, the cannon’s mouth, out of harm’s way, at swords’ points, for pity’s sake, for conscience’ sake; (2) a moment’s pause, a year’s time, a hand’s breadth, a boat’s length, a month’s salary, a week’s notice, a night’s rest, a day’s work, a stone’s throw, a feather’s weight, an hour’s delay, a dollar’s worth, not a foot’s difference.
In the second group of phrases (“a moment’s pause,” etc.), the possessive denotes not ownership, but +measure+ or +extent+.
IV. The possessive case of certain pronouns (_my_, _our_, _your_, _his_, _her_, _its_, _their_) is more freely used than that of nouns in expressions that do not denote actual ownership.
I know him to _my_ sorrow. [Compare: to his loss, to our detriment, to his advantage.]
The brass has lost _its_ polish.
This question must be decided on _its_ merits.
His arguments did not fail of _their_ effect.
For the inflection of these pronouns, see § 115. For the use of _whose_, see § 152.
+94.+ When a thing belongs to two or more +joint owners+, the sign of the possessive is added to the last name only.
Brown, Jones, and Richardson’s factories. [Brown, Jones, and Richardson are partners.]
It is George and William’s turn to take the boat. [George and William are to go in the boat together.]
On the other hand, in order to avoid ambiguity we should say, “Brown’s, Jones’s, and Richardson’s factories,” if each individual had a factory of his own; and “George’s and William’s answers were correct,” if each boy answered independently of the other.
+95.+ In +compound nouns+ the last part takes the possessive sign. So also when a phrase is used as a noun.
My _father-in-law’s_ home is in Easton.
We had _a quarter of an hour’s_ talk.
Other examples are the following:--
My brother-in-law’s opinion; the commander-in-chief’s orders; the lady-in-waiting’s duties; the coal dealer’s prices; Edward VII’s reign; the King of England’s portrait; half a year’s delay; in three or four months’ time; a cable and a half’s length; the pleasure of Major Pendennis and Mr. Arthur Pendennis’s company (THACKERAY).
NOTE. Noun-phrases often contain two substantives, the second of which is in apposition with the first. In such phrases, _of_ is generally preferable to the possessive. Thus, we may say either “Tom the blacksmith’s daughter” or “the daughter of Tom the blacksmith”; but “the son of Mr. Hill the carpenter” is both neater and clearer than “Mr. Hill the carpenter’s son.” The use of _’s_ is also avoided with a very long phrase like “the owner of the house on the other side of the street.”
An objective may stand in apposition with a possessive, the latter being equivalent to _of_ with an object. Thus,--“I am not yet of Percy’s mind [= of the mind of Percy], the _Hotspur_ of the North” (SHAKSPERE).
+96.+ The noun denoting the object possessed is often omitted when it may be readily understood, especially in the predicate.
_Conant’s_ [shop] is open until noon.
I buy my hats at _Bryant’s_ [shop].
We will dine at _Pennock’s_ [restaurant].
That camera is _mine_. (See § 122.)
This construction is common in such expressions as:--
He was a relative of _John’s_.
That careless tongue of _John’s_ will get him into trouble.
In the first example, “a relative of John’s” means “a relative of (= _from among_) John’s relatives.” The second example shows an extension of this construction by analogy. See § 122.
Objective Case
+97.+ The +objective case+, as its name implies, is the case of the +object+. Most of its uses are covered by the following rule:--
+The object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case.+
The object of a preposition has already been explained and defined (§§ 20–21).
+98.+ The +object of a verb+ may be (1) the direct object, (2) the predicate objective, (3) the indirect object, (4) the cognate object. Of these the direct object is the most important.
The objective is also used (5) adverbially (§ 109), (6) in apposition with another objective (§ 110), and (7) as the subject of an infinitive (§ 111).
1. Direct Object
+99.+ +Some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that which receives the action or is produced by it. These are called transitive verbs. All other verbs are called intransitive.+
1. That man _struck_ my _dog_.
2. The arrow _hit_ the _target_.
3. Cæsar _conquered Gaul_.
4. Mr. Holland _sells flour_.
5. The farmer _raises corn_.
6. Mr. Eaton _makes stoves_.
7. My grandfather _built_ that _house_.
In Nos. 1–4, the verb is followed by a noun denoting the +receiver of the action+. Thus, in the first sentence, the _dog_ receives the blow; in the second, the _target_ receives the action of hitting. In Nos. 5–7, the verb is followed by a noun denoting the +product+ of the action. For example, the _corn_ is +produced+ by the action expressed by the verb _raises_.
In each example, the noun that follows the verb +completes the sense+ of the verb. “That man _struck_ ----.” “Struck _whom_?” “He struck the _dog_.” Until _dog_ is added the sense of the verb _struck_ is incomplete.
+100.+ +A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called its direct object, and is said to be in the objective case.+
Thus, in the examples above, _dog_ is the direct object of the transitive verb _struck_; _target_ is the direct object of _hit_,--and so on. Each of these nouns is therefore in the +objective case+.
+The direct object is often called the object complement, or the object of the verb.+
+101.+ Intransitive verbs have no object.
The lion _roared_.
The visitor _coughed_ gently.
The log _drifted_ downstream.
We all _listened_ intently.
Compare these sentences with those in § 99. We observe that the verbs (unlike those in § 99) admit no object, since their meaning is complete without the addition of any noun to denote the receiver or product of the action. “The man _struck_----” prompts the inquiry, “Struck _whom_?” But no such question is suggested by “The lion _roared_”; for “Roared _what_?” would be an absurdity.
+102.+ The +predicate nominative+ (§ 88, 2) must not be confused with the +direct object+. They resemble each other in two particulars: (1) both stand in the predicate, and (2) both complete the meaning of the verb. But they differ utterly in their relation to the subject of the sentence. For--
The +predicate nominative+ describes or defines the +subject+. Hence both substantives denote the same person or thing.
Charles [SUBJECT] {is | was | became | was elected} _captain_ [PREDICATE NOMINATIVE].
The +direct object+ neither describes nor defines the subject. On the contrary, it designates that upon which the subject acts. Hence the two substantives regularly[18] denote different persons or things.
Charles [SUBJECT] {struck _James_ [OBJECT]. | threw a _stone_ [OBJECT]. | built a _boat_ [OBJECT].}
Both the direct object and the predicate nominative are classed as +complements+, because they are used to complete the sense of the predicate verb (§ 483).
+103.+ A verb of _asking_ sometimes takes +two direct objects+, one denoting the +person+ and the other the +thing+.
She asked the _boy_ his _name_.
Ask _me_ no _favors_.
I asked the _lawyer_ his _opinion_.
2. Predicate Objective
+104.+ +Verbs of _choosing_, _calling_, _naming_, _making_, and _thinking_ may take two objects referring to the same person or thing.+
+The first of these is the direct object, and the second, which completes the sense of the predicate, is called a predicate objective.+
We chose Oscar _president_. [_Oscar_ is the direct object of _chose_; _president_ is the predicate objective.]
I call John my _friend_.
They thought the man a _coward_.
Make my house your _home_.
The predicate objective is often called the complementary object or the objective attribute. It is classed as a complement.
An adjective may serve as predicate objective.
I call this ship _unseaworthy_.
Your letter made your sister _anxious_.
What makes Edwin so _careless_?
3. Indirect Object and Similar Idioms
+105.+ +Some verbs of _giving_, _telling_, _refusing_, and the like, may take two objects, a direct object and an indirect object.+
+The indirect object denotes the person or thing toward whom or toward which is directed the action expressed by the rest of the predicate.+
Direct Object Only Direct Object And Indirect Object
Dick sold his bicycle. Dick sold _John_ his bicycle. I gave permission. I gave this _man_ permission. He paid a dollar. He paid the _gardener_ a dollar. She taught Latin. She taught my _children_ Latin.
Most of the verbs that admit an indirect object are included in the following list:--
allot, allow, assign, bequeath, bring, deny, ensure, fetch, fling, forbid, forgive, give, grant, guarantee, hand, lease, leave, lend, let, owe, pardon, pass, pay, refund, refuse, remit, restore, sell, send, show, sing, spare, teach, tell, throw, toss, vouchsafe.
Pronouns are commoner as indirect objects than nouns.
They denied _her_ the necessities of life.
I guaranteed _them_ a handsome profit.
The king vouchsafed _them_ an audience.
+It is always possible to insert the preposition _to_ before the indirect object without changing the sense.+
Since the indirect object is equivalent to an adverbial phrase, it is classed as a modifier of the verb.
Thus, in “Dick sold _John_ his bicycle,” _John_ is an adverbial modifier of the predicate verb _sold_.
The indirect object is sometimes used without a direct object expressed. Thus,--
He paid the hatter.
Here _hatter_ may be recognized as an indirect object by inserting _to_ before it and adding a direct object (“his _bill_,” “his _money_,” or the like).
+106.+ The objective case sometimes expresses the person _for whom_ anything is done.
William made his _brother_ a kite [= made a kite for his brother].
Sampson built _me_ a boat [= built a boat for me].
This construction may be called the +objective of service+.
NOTE. The objective of service is often included under the head of the indirect object. But the two constructions differ widely in sense, and should be carefully distinguished. To do an act _to_ a person is not the same thing as to do an act _for_ a person. Contrast “John paid the money _to_ me,” with “John paid the money _for_ me”; “Dick sold a bicycle _to_ me,” with “Dick sold a bicycle _for_ me.”
+107.+ The objective case is used after _like_, _unlike_, _near_, and _next_, which are really adjectives or adverbs, though in this construction they are often regarded as prepositions.
She sang like a _bird_. [_Like_ is an adverb.]
The earth is like a _ball_. [_Like_ is an adjective.]
My office is near the _station_. [_Near_ is an adjective.]
That answer was unlike _Joseph_. [_Unlike_ is an adjective.]
This man walks unlike _Joseph_. [_Unlike_ is an adverb.]
A stream ran near the _hut_. [_Near_ is an adverb.]
The use of the objective after these words is a peculiar idiom similar to the indirect object (§ 105). The nature of the construction may be seen (as in the indirect object) by inserting _to_ or _unto_ (“She sang _like unto_ a bird”).
NOTE. The indirect object, the objective of service, and the objective after _like_, _unlike_, and _near_ are all survivals of old dative constructions. Besides the case of the direct object (often called +accusative+), English once had a case (called the +dative+) which meant _to_ or _for_ [somebody or something]. The dative case is easily distinguished in Greek, Latin, and German, but in English it has long been merged in form with the ordinary objective.
4. Cognate Object
+108.+ +A verb that is regularly intransitive sometimes takes as object a noun whose meaning closely resembles its own.+
+A noun in this construction is called the cognate object of the verb and is in the objective case.+
He ran a _race_.
The mayor coughed a dubious, insinuating _cough_.
A scornful _laugh_ laughed he.
The trumpeter blew a loud _blast_.
She sleeps the _sleep_ of death.
NOTE. _Cognate_ means “kindred” or “related.” The cognate object repeats the idea of the verb, often with some modification, and may be classed as an adverbial modifier. Its difference from the direct object may be seen by contrasting “The blacksmith struck the _anvil_” with “The blacksmith struck a mighty _blow_” (cf. “struck _mightily_”). For the pronoun _it_ as cognate object, see § 120.
5. Adverbial Objective
+109.+ +A noun, or a phrase consisting of a noun and its modifiers, may be used adverbially. Such a noun is called an adverbial objective.+
We have waited _years_ for this reform.
I am _years_ older than you are.
The river is _miles_ away.
The water rose _three feet_.
This is _an inch_ too long.
My brother is _twenty years_ old.
I will stay a _short time_.
Wait _a moment_.
Come here _this instant_!
Turn your eyes _this way_.
This silk is _several shades_ too light.
A group of words consisting of an adverbial object with its modifier or modifiers forms an +adverbial phrase+ (§ 41).
6. Objective in Apposition
+110.+ A substantive in apposition with an objective is itself in the objective case.
Yesterday I saw Williams the _expressman_. [Apposition with the direct object of _saw_.]
Tom gave his friend _John_ a book. [Apposition with the indirect object _friend_.]
He lives with Andrews the _blacksmith_. [Apposition with the object of the preposition _with_.]
This rule follows from the general principle that an appositive is in the same case as the substantive to which it is attached (§ 88, 5).
7. Subject of an Infinitive
+111.+ The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.
This construction will be treated in connection with the uses of the infinitive (§ 325).
Parsing
+112.+ To +parse+ a word is to describe its grammatical form and to give its construction.
In parsing a +noun+, we mention the class to which it belongs, give its gender, number, person, and case, and tell why it is in that case. Thus,--
1. Frank shot a wolf.
_Frank_ is a proper noun of the masculine gender, in the singular number and third person. It is in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb _shot_.
_Wolf_ is a common noun of the masculine or feminine [or common] gender, in the singular number and third person. It is in the objective case, because it is the object [or direct object] of the transitive verb _shot_.
2. Jane, come here.
_Jane_ is a proper noun of the feminine gender, in the singular number and second person. It is in the nominative case, being used as a vocative (or in direct address).
3. The rope is fifteen feet long.
_Feet_ is a common noun of the neuter gender, in the plural number and third person. It is in the objective case, being used as an adverbial modifier of the adjective _long_.
4. Edgar’s boat is a sloop.
_Edgar’s_ is a proper noun of the masculine gender, in the singular number and third person. It is in the possessive case, modifying the noun _boat_.
Chapter III
Pronouns
+113.+ +A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a person, place, or thing without naming it.+
+The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.+
+A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, number, and person+ (§ 11).
Pronouns have in general the same constructions as nouns.
+114.+ Pronouns may be classified as (1) +personal+, (2) +adjective+, (3) +relative+, and (4) +interrogative+.
Under adjective pronouns are included (_a_) +demonstrative pronouns+ and (_b_) +indefinite pronouns+.
Personal Pronouns
+115.+ +The personal pronouns serve to distinguish (1) the speaker, (2) the person spoken to, and (3) the person, place, or thing spoken of+ (§ 85).
They are declined as follows:--
The Pronoun Of The First Person: _I_
Singular Plural
_Nominative_ I _Nominative_ we _Possessive_ my _or_ mine _Possessive_ our _or_ ours _Objective_ me _Objective_ us
THE PRONOUN OF THE SECOND PERSON: _thou_
Singular Plural
_Nominative_ thou _Nominative_ you _or_ ye _Possessive_ thy _or_ thine _Possessive_ your _or_ yours _Objective_ thee _Objective_ you _or_ ye
THE PRONOUN OF THE THIRD PERSON: _he_, _she_, _it_
Singular Plural
MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER MASCULINE, FEMININE, and NEUTER
_Nominative_ he she it they _Possessive_ his her _or_ hers its their _or_ theirs _Objective_ him her it them
Unlike nouns, most of the personal pronouns have distinct forms for the nominative and the objective.
NOTE. The possessive case of personal pronouns never has the apostrophe. Thus,--_its_, _yours_, _theirs_.
The form _it’s_ is proper only as a contraction of _it is_.
Gender And Number
+116.+ The pronouns of the first and second persons (_I_ and _thou_) may be either masculine or feminine.
The pronouns of the third person have different forms for masculine, feminine, and neuter in the +singular+ (_he_, _she_, _it_); but in the +plural+ the form _they_ serves for all three genders.
NOTE. In the oldest English _his_ was both masculine and neuter. The neuter use lasted until the seventeenth century. Thus,--
That same eye whose bend doth awe the world Did lose _his_ lustre.--SHAKSPERE, _Julius Cæsar_, i. 2. 123.
+117.+ _Thou_, _thy_, _thine_, _thee_, and _ye_ are old forms still found in poetry and the solemn style.
In ordinary prose, _you_, _your_, and _yours_ are the only forms used for the second person, whether singular or plural. Yet _you_, even when denoting a single person, always takes the verb-forms that go with plural subjects. Thus,--
My friend, _you were_ [NOT _was_] in error.
Hence _you_ may best be regarded as always plural in form, but may be described as singular in sense when it stands for one person only.
NOTE. Members of the Society of Friends (commonly called Quakers) and of some other religious bodies use _thee_ and _thy_ in their ordinary conversation.
_Ye_ was formerly the regular nominative plural, and _you_ the objective; but the forms were afterwards confused. _Ye_ has gone out of use except in poetry and the solemn style, and _you_ is now the regular form for both nominative and objective.
Where an objective form _ye_ is found printed instead of _you_ (as often in Shakspere,--“A southwest blow on _ye_”), it represents an indistinct pronunciation of _you_ rather than the old nominative _ye_. This indistinct sound may still be heard in rapid or careless speech (“I’ll tell yer the truth”).
_Ye_ as an abbreviation for _the_ (as in “_ye_ old town”) has nothing to do with the pronoun _ye_. The _y_ simply stands for the character þ (an old sign for _th_), and the abbreviation was pronounced _the_, never _ye_.
+118.+ _They_, _you_, and _we_ are often used indefinitely for “one” or “people in general.”
_They_ say that Joe has gone to sea.
To shut off the steam, _you_ close both valves of the radiator.
NOTE. _We_, _our_, and _us_ are used in editorial articles instead of _I_, _my_, and _me_, because the writer represents the whole editorial staff. This practice should not be followed in ordinary composition.
A sovereign ruler may use _we_, _our_, and _us_ when speaking of himself in proclamations and other formal documents. This construction is often called “the plural of majesty.” Thus,--
Know that _we_ have divided In three _our_ kingdom.--SHAKSPERE.
The form _’em_ (as in “Tell me your counsels; I will not disclose _’em_,” in _Julius Cæsar_) is not a contraction of _them_, but of _hem_, an old objective plural of _he_.
Case Of Personal Pronouns
Nominative Case
+119.+ +Nominative constructions+ of the personal pronouns are the same as those of nouns (§ 88).
_I_ am ready. [Subject.]
It is _I_. [Predicate nominative.]
Here, _you_ rascal, what are you about? [Vocative, direct address.]
Poor _you_! [Nominative of exclamation.]
General Austin, _he_ and no other, won the battle. [Apposition.]
For the +nominative absolute+, see § 345.
Care must be taken not to use an objective form when a predicate nominative is required.
It is _I_ [NOT _me_].
It is _we_ [NOT _us_] who did it.
It was _he_ [NOT _him_] who told us.
It was _they_ [NOT _them_] who were to blame.
+120.+ _It_ has several peculiar uses in the nominative.
1. _It_ is used as the subject in many expressions like “It rains,” “It snows,” “It lightens,” “It is cold,” where no definite subject is thought of. In this use, _it_ is said to be +impersonal+.
NOTE. An impersonal _it_ also occurs as a cognate object (§ 108) in colloquial language: as,--“Hang it!” “Go it!” “He went it.” “He farmed it for a year.” Other examples of the indefinite and impersonal _it_ in various constructions are: “We are roughing _it_.” “Keep _it_ up.” “You’ll catch _it_.” “Let _it_ all go.” “He made a poor job of _it_.” “He made a success of _it_.”
2. _It_ often serves as grammatical subject merely to introduce the verb _is_, the real subject of the thought standing in the predicate. In this use _it_ is called an +expletive+ (or “filler”).
_It_ is he.
_It_ is Christmas.
_It_ was a tiresome ride.
In these examples, the subject of the thought (_he_, _Christmas_, _ride_) appears as a predicate nominative.
3. The antecedent of _it_ is often a group of words.
Wearing tight shoes is foolish. _It_ deforms the feet.
+121.+ In +imperative sentences+ the subject (_you_) is commonly omitted: as,--“Shut the door.”
NOTE. The subject _I_ is sometimes omitted in wishes (as, “_Would_ he were here!” for “I would that he were here”). So also in “Thank you,” “Pray tell me” (compare _prithee_ for “I pray thee”).
Expressions like “Canst tell?” (for “Canst thou tell?”), “Art there?” (for “Art thou there?”) are common in poetry and older English. These come from the gradual wearing away and final disappearance of the pronoun _thou_ (_canst thou_, _canstow_, _canstë_, _canst_).
Possessive Case
+122.+ The +possessive+ forms _my_, _thy_, _our_, _your_, _her_, and _their_ are used when a noun follows; _mine_, _thine_, _ours_, _yours_, _hers_, and _theirs_ cannot be followed by a noun, and stand commonly in the predicate. _His_ may be used in either way.
_My_ brother has arrived. The fault is _mine_.
_Our_ work is done. Those seats are _ours_.
I have torn _your_ glove. This pencil is _yours_.
_Their_ turn has come. That field is _theirs_.
_His_ hair is black. The book is not _his_.
Examples of _mine_, _yours_, etc. not in the predicate are:
_Mine_ was a terrier; _yours_ was a pointer.
_Theirs_ is a red motor car.
_Ours_ broke down last night.
_His_ leaked badly.
_His_ name is Martin; _hers_ is Smith.
In such cases the pronoun is always emphatic. The construction is chiefly colloquial.
NOTE. In older English and in poetry _mine_ and _thine_ are common instead of _my_ and _thy_ before words beginning with a vowel or _h_: as,--
_Mine_ eyes dazzle: she died young.--JOHN WEBSTER.
The very minute bids thee ope _thine_ ear.--SHAKSPERE.
_Mine_ is sometimes used after a vocative noun: as,--_brother mine_.
For expressions like “a friend of _mine_,” “that unruly tongue of _yours_,” see § 96.
+123.+ When two or more separate objects are spoken of as possessed, a possessive should precede the name of each if there is danger of ambiguity.
I will send for our secretary and our treasurer. [Two persons.]
I will send for our secretary and treasurer. [One person.]
I have called for my bread and my milk. [Two things.]
I have called for my bread and milk. [A mixture.]
Have you Bacon’s “Essays and Apophthegms”? [One book.]
Have you Bacon’s “Essays” and his “Advancement of Learning”? [Two books.]
Objective Case
+124.+ The commonest constructions in which personal pronouns take the +objective case+ are the following:--
1. Object of a preposition (§ 97): as,--
Take it from _him_.
2. Direct object of a transitive verb (§ 99): as,--
I will find _you_.
3. Indirect object of a transitive verb (§ 105): as,--
He gave _me_ a dollar.
4. Subject of an infinitive (see § 325).
NOTE. In poetry the objective _me_ is sometimes used in exclamations: as,--“_Me_ miserable!” (MILTON).
In _methinks_ and _meseems_ (“it seems to me”), _me_ is a remnant of the old dative, as in the indirect object (see § 107).
The compounds _thereof_, _therewith_, _therefrom_, etc., are equivalent to _of it_, _with it_, _from it_, etc.: as,--“Proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants _thereof_” (_Leviticus_ xxv. 10).
For the impersonal _it_ as cognate object, see § 120.
The _Self_-Pronouns (Compound Personal Pronouns)
+125.+ The three +compound personal pronouns+ are made by adding the word _self_ to certain forms of the personal pronouns. Thus,--
myself, _plural_ ourselves;
thyself _or_ yourself, _plural_ yourselves;
himself, herself, itself, _plural_ themselves.
To these may be added the indefinite _oneself_, more commonly written as two words, _one’s self_ (§ 139).
Observe that _yourself_ is singular, and _yourselves_ plural. _Hisself_ and _theirselves_ are incorrect forms. _Ourself_ (not _ourselves_) is the compound pronoun corresponding to the royal _we_ (§ 118).
What touches us _ourself_ shall be last served.--SHAKSPERE.
+126.+ 1. +The compound personal pronouns may be used to emphasize substantives.+
+In this use they are called intensive pronouns.+
I _myself_ will go.
King Alfred _himself_ took the field.
They did the work _themselves_.
An intensive pronoun is in apposition with the substantive to which it refers.
2. +The compound personal pronouns may be used as the objects of transitive verbs or of prepositions when the object denotes the same person or thing as the subject.+
+In this use they are called reflexive pronouns.+
I have hurt _myself_.
King Alfred interested _himself_ in his subjects.
These schemers deceived _themselves_.
Mary was talking to _herself_.
He gave _himself_ a holiday. [Indirect object.]
These pronouns are called +reflexive+ (that is, “bending back”) because they +refer back+ to the subject and repeat its meaning in an object construction.
NOTE. A reflexive pronoun sometimes refers to a substantive in the objective case: as,--“Our captors left _us_ to _ourselves_.”
In older English the simple personal pronouns _me_, _thee_, etc., were often used reflexively: as,--“I held _me_ [= _myself_] still”; “Yield _thee_ [= _thyself_] captive”; “They built _them_ [= for _themselves_] houses” (see § 106). This idiom survives in colloquial language (as, “I have hurt _me_,” “I have bought _me_ a rifle”), but it is avoided in writing except in a few expressions such as: “I must look about _me_”; “We gazed about _us_”; “Look behind _you_.”
+127.+ The adjective _own_ is sometimes inserted between the first and the second part of the _self_-pronouns for emphasis.
EXAMPLES: my own self, your own self, his own self, our own selves, their own selves.
In this use, _self_ is in strictness a noun limited by the possessive and by the adjective _own_, but the phrases may be regarded as compound pronouns. Other adjectives are sometimes inserted between the possessive and _self_: as,--my _very_ self, his _worthless_ self.
+128.+ The intensive pronouns are sometimes used without a substantive. Thus,--
It is _myself_. [_Myself_ = _I myself_.]
You are hardly _yourself_ to-day.
In poetry and older English, the intensives are even found as subjects: as,--“_Ourself_ will mingle with society” (_Macbeth_).
+129.+ The intensive pronouns should not be used as simple personal pronouns.
Thus we should say:--“He was kind to Mary and _me_” (NOT _myself_); “They invited my wife and _me_ (NOT _myself_).”
Adjective Pronouns
+130.+ +Some words are used either as adjectives or as pronouns. Such words are called adjective pronouns.+
Adjective pronouns are classified, according to their meaning, as (1) +demonstrative pronouns+ and (2) +indefinite pronouns+.
I. Demonstrative Pronouns
+131.+ +The demonstratives are _this_ (plural, _these_), _that_ (plural, _those_). They point out persons or things for special attention.+
The demonstratives may be used either as adjectives or as pronouns.
I. As adjectives:--
_This_ sailor saved my life. _These_ girls are energetic.
Be kind to _this_ child. I am not alarmed by _these_ threats.
Give _this_ boy a dime. _These_ cherries are sour.
_This_ fire is too hot. Look at _these_ acorns.
_That_ saw is dull. _Those_ trees are dying.
We must cross _that_ stream. Take _those_ dishes away.
_That_ train is late. Who are _those_ strangers?
Send _that_ dog home. Do you see _those_ rocks?
I am tired of _that_ tune. I am sorry for _those_ children.
II. As pronouns:--
_This_ is a fine morning.[19] _These_ are cowboys.
_This_ is my uncle. Robert gave me _these_.
Can you do _this_? I never saw _these_ before.
_This_ is the road. Who are _these_?
Look at _this_. _These_ are our rackets.
_That_ is Ellen in the canoe. _Those_ are deer.
_That_ would please him. _Those_ are nasturtiums.
_That_ must be he. What are _those_?
What is _that_? _Those_ are kangaroos.
If the demonstrative is followed by a noun which it limits (as in “_this_ sailor”), it is an adjective. If the demonstrative points out something which it does not name (as in “_This_ is a fine morning”), it takes the place of a noun and is therefore a pronoun. The simple subject of the sentence “This camera is expensive” is the noun _camera_, which is modified by the adjective _this_. The subject of the sentence “_This_ is expensive” is the pronoun _this_.
NOTE. _Yon_, _yond_, and _yonder_ are common as demonstratives in older English and in poetry. Thus,--“Nerissa, cheer _yon_ stranger” (_Merchant of Venice_). “Question _yond_ man” (_As You Like It_). “Is not _yond_ Diomed?” (_Troilus and Cressida_). “Call _yonder_ fellow hither” (_Henry V_). “Is _yonder_ the man?” (_As You Like It_).
+132.+ Demonstratives have only the inflection of number. They have the same form for all three genders. The nominative and objective cases are alike; the possessive is replaced by _of_ with the objective.
Singular Plural
_Nom. and Obj._ this _Nom. and Obj._ these _Possessive_ [of this] _Possessive_ [of these]
_Nom. and Obj._ that _Nom. and Obj._ those _Possessive_ [of that] _Possessive_ [of those]
_Yon_, _yond_, and _yonder_ are not inflected.
+133.+ A demonstrative pronoun may be used to avoid the repetition of a noun.
My dog and _that_ [= the dog] of my friend John have been fighting.
Compare these maps with _those_ [= the maps] on the blackboard.
+134.+ The singular forms _this_ and _that_ (not the plurals _these_ and _those_) are used with the nouns _kind_ and _sort_.
I like _this_ kind of grapes.
I have met _this_ sort of people before.
_That_ kind of apples grows in Idaho.
II. Indefinite Pronouns
+135.+ +The indefinite pronouns point out objects less clearly or definitely than demonstratives do.+
EXAMPLES: each, every, either, both, neither, some, any, such, none, other, another, each other, one another.
_Each_ has its merits.
_Some_ are missing.
I cannot give you _any_.
_Either_ is correct.
He knows _neither_ of you.
I like _both_.
+136.+ Most indefinites may be either +pronouns+ or +adjectives+. But _none_ is always a substantive in modern use, and _every_ is always an adjective.
+137.+ _None_ may be either singular or plural. When it means distinctly _not one_, it is singular. In many instances either construction is permissible.
_None_ of us has the key.
_None_ was (_or_ were) left to tell the tale.
+138.+ _Each other_ and _one another_ are regarded as +compound+ pronouns. They designate related persons or things.
My neighbor and I like _each other_.
We must bear with _one another_.
The relation indicated by these pronouns is that of reciprocity. Hence they are often called reciprocal pronouns.
There is no real distinction between _each other_ and _one another_. The rules sometimes given for such a distinction are not supported by the best usage.
+139.+ _One_ (possessive _one’s_) is often used as an indefinite personal pronoun. Thus,--
_One_ does not like _one’s_ [NOT _his_ or _their_] motives to be doubted.
The use of _his_ (for _one’s_) to refer back to a preceding _one_ is found in respectable writers, but is contrary to the best usage.
For the indefinite use of _we_, _you_, _they_, see § 118.
+140.+ _All_, _several_, _few_, _many_, and similar words are often classed as indefinites. They may be used as adjectives or as substantives. _Everybody_, _everything_, _anybody_, _anything_, _somewhat_, _aught_, _naught_,[20] etc., are called indefinite nouns.
+141.+ Care should be taken in framing such sentences as the following:--
Everybody has _his_ [NOT _their_] faults.
If anybody wishes to go, _he_ [NOT _they_] may.
If anybody objects, let _him_ [NOT _them_] speak.
Every member of this class must hand in _his_ [NOT _their_] composition to-day.
Each hurries toward _his_ [NOT _their_] home.
Each of us must lead _his_ [NOT _their_] own life.
In sentences of this kind, the personal pronoun (_he_, _his_, _him_) must be in the singular to agree with its antecedent (_everybody_, _anybody_, etc.) (see § 113).
NOTE. When the antecedent is of common gender (as in the last example), the personal pronouns (_he_, _his_, _him_) may be regarded as of common gender also. In very precise or formal language, one may say _he or she_, _his or her_: as,--“Each of us must lead _his or her_ own life”; but this form of expression is to be avoided unless the distinction is clearly necessary.
+142.+ When used as adjectives, none of the indefinites have any forms of inflection. The same is true when they are pronouns, except as follows:--
_Others_ is used as the plural of _another_. The possessive forms are:--singular, _another’s_; plural, _others’_. _The other_ (possessive, _the other’s_) has in the plural _the others_ (possessive, _the others’_). _Each other_ and _one another_ add _’s_ in the possessive. _One_ has a possessive _one’s_; _the one_ becomes _the ones_ in the plural.
Relative Pronouns
+143.+ +Relative pronouns+ have a peculiar function in the sentence, since they serve both as +pronouns+ and as +connectives+. Their use may be seen by comparing the two sentences that follow:--
1. This is the sailor, and he saved my life.
2. This is the sailor who saved my life.
Each consists of two parts or clauses (§ 44). In No. 1, the two clauses are connected by the conjunction _and_, which belongs to neither; the pronoun _he_, which stands for _sailor_, is the subject of the second clause. In No. 2, there is no conjunction; instead, we find the word _who_, which replaces _and he_. This _who_ is a +pronoun+, since it stands for _sailor_ (precisely as _he_ does in No. 1) and (like _he_) is the subject of the verb _saved_. But _who_ is also a +connective+, since it joins the two parts of the sentence as _and_ does in No. 1. Such words (which serve both as pronouns and as connectives) are called +relative pronouns+.
In No. 1, the two clauses are +coördinate+. Neither serves as a modifier, and each might stand alone as a complete sentence (“This is the sailor.” “He saved my life”). The sentence is compound (§ 44). In No. 2, on the contrary, the clause _who saved my life_ is a +subordinate+ or +dependent clause+, for it is used as an adjective modifier of the noun _sailor_, which it limits by showing what particular sailor is meant. The sentence is +complex+ (§ 44). The dependent clause (_who saved my life_) is connected with the main clause (_this is the sailor_) by the pronoun _who_, which refers to _sailor_.
+144.+ +Relative pronouns connect dependent clauses with main clauses by referring directly to a substantive in the main clause.+[21]
+This substantive is the antecedent of the relative+ (§ 11).
Thus in § 143 the noun _sailor_ is the antecedent of _who_.
_Relative_ means “carrying back.” These pronouns are so called because they carry the mind back directly to the antecedent.
+145.+ The simple relative pronouns are _who_, _which_, _that_, _as_, and _what_.
_Who_ and _which_ are declined as follows in both the singular and the plural:--
_Nominative_ who which _Possessive_ whose whose _Objective_ whom which
_That_, _as_, and _what_ are not inflected. They have the same form for both nominative and objective and are not used in the possessive case.
+146.+ _As_ may be used as a relative pronoun when _such_ stands in the main clause.
Such of you _as_ have finished may go.
I have never seen such strawberries _as_ these [are].
Use such powers _as_ you have.
+147.+ _As_ is often used as a relative after _the same_.
This color is the same _as_ that [is].
Other relatives are also used after _the same_.
This is the same book _that_ (or _which_) you were reading yesterday.
This is the same man _that_ (or _whom_) I saw on the pier last Friday.
+148.+ _Who_ is either masculine or feminine; _which_ and _what_ are neuter; _that_ and _as_ are of all three genders.
All _who_ heard, approved.
Here is the lad _whose_ story interested you.
The first woman _whom_ I saw was Mary.
He answered in such English _as_ he could muster.
I saw nobody _that_ I knew.
This is the road _that_ leads to London.
In older English _the which_ is often used for _which_: as,--
Our foster-nurse of nature is repose, _The which_ he lacks.--SHAKSPERE.
For other uses of _as_, see §§ 368, 428–429. For _but_ in such sentences as “There was nobody _but_ believed him,” see § 370.
+149.+ +A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, number, and person.+
The sentences in § 148 illustrate the agreement of the relative with its antecedent in +gender+.
Since relative pronouns have the same form for both numbers and for all three persons, their +number and person+ must be discovered, in each instance, by observing the number and person of the +antecedent+.
It is _I who am_ wrong. [First person, singular number: antecedent, _I_.]
All _you who are_ ready may go. [Second person plural: antecedent, _you_.]
Give help to _him who needs it_. [Third person, singular: antecedent, _him_.]
The _road that leads_ to the shore is sandy. [Third person singular: antecedent, _road_.]
The _roads that lead_ to the shore are sandy. [Third person plural: antecedent, _roads_.]
To determine the number and person of a relative pronoun is particularly necessary when it is the +subject of the clause+, for the form of the verb varies (as the examples show) according to the number and person of the subject (§ 222). Hence the rule for the agreement of a relative with its antecedent is of much practical importance.
+150.+ +The case of a relative pronoun has nothing to do with its antecedent, but depends on the construction of its own clause.+
The servant _who_ opened the door wore livery. [_Who_ is in the nominative case, being the subject of _opened_.]
He discharged his servant, _who_ immediately left town. [_Who_ is i
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